are attracted to this profession because of the high profile nature of the work. Opportunities should be best for college graduates who combine a degree in journalism, public relations, advertising, or another communications-related field with a public relations internship or other related work experience. Applicants without the appropriate educational background or work experience will face the toughest obstacles.

Employment of public relations specialists is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations. The need for good public relations in an increasingly competitive business environment should spur demand for public relations specialists in organizations of all types and sizes. The value of a company is measured not just by its balance sheet, but also by the strength of its relationships with those on whom it depends for its success. With the increasing demand for corporate accountability, more emphasis will be placed on improving the image of the client, as well as on building public confidence.

I.: Thank you, Paul.

5.Public Relations Departments and Firms

5.1.(I = Interviewer, S.L. = Steven Luders)

I.: What does the role of public relations in an organization depend on?

S.L.: First of all, it depends on the type of organization. Complex organizations have a greater tendency than smaller firms to include public relations in the policy-making process. They place more emphasis on news conferences, formal contact with the media, writing executive speeches, and counseling management about issues that could potentially affect the corporate bottom line. In these organizations the authority and power of the public relations department are quite high. In contrast, a small-scale organization of low complexity, with a standardized product or service, feels few public pressures and little governmental regulatory interest. It has scant public relations activity, and staff members are relegated to such technician roles as producing the company newsletter and issuing routine releases. In this type of organization public relations has little or no input into management decisions and policy formation.

I.: Do public relations departments of different organizations have the same name?

S.L.: A public relations department in an organization goes by many names. And most often, it is not public relations. In the largest corporations, the terms corporate communications or communications outnumber public relations by almost four to one. The companies, switching from public relations to corporate communications, say that the switch occurs because the department expands beyond public relations to include such activities as employee communications, shareholder communications, annual reports, consumer relations, and corporate philanthropy.

I.: Alongside public relations departments of organizations, there are also public relations

- 323 -

firms. What are they like?

S.L.: Public relations firms range in size from oneor twoperson operations to global giants such as Burson-Marsteller, which employs 2,000 professionals in 35 nations. The scope of services provided to clients varies, but there are common denominators. Big or small, each firm gives counsel and performs technical services required to carry out an agreed-upon program. The firm may operate as an adjunct to an organization’s public relations department or, if no department exists, conduct the entire effort.

I.: Are there a lot of public relations firms in the United States?

S.L. Because of its large population and economic base, the United States has the world’s most public relations firms. Among the well-known names are: Burson-Marsteller, Hill & Knowlton, Shandwick International, Porter Novelli, Fleishman-Hillard, Edelman PR Worldwide, Ogilvy PR, Ketchum PR, GCI Group and others.

I.: Thank you, Steven.

5.2. (I = Interviewer, S.L. = Steven Luders)

I.: Is public relations operating more and more on a global stage?

S.L.: Yes, this is the general tendency. Public relations firms, large and small, are usually found in major metropolitan areas. On an international level, the firms and their affiliates are situated in most major world cities. Edelman Public Relations Worldwide, for example, has 35 offices in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Europe, and Asia-Pacific region, and more than 50 affiliates worldwide. Other large U.S. firms have firmly planted their flags from Moscow to Bangkok.

I.: Is international work only for the large firms?

S.L.: No, it is not. Small and medium-sized firms around the world have formed working partnerships with each other. The largest group is WORLD-COM, with 92 firms in 36 nations. And Pinnacle Worldwide is a network of 63 independent firms in 33 nations. Essentially, firms in an affiliation cooperate with each other to service clients with international needs. A firm in India may call its affiliate in Los Angeles to handle the details of a news conference for a visiting trade delegation from India. This approach gives small firms with limited resources an opportunity to offer the same kinds of services as the largest firms.

I.: In what parts of the world have public relations firms opened their subsidiaries lately? S.L.: The large international firms, as well as various affiliated groups, have been well

established in Western Europe for several years. A new area of expansion is the major cities of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. Another area of new business is Latin America, as free market economies become the rule rather than the exception. Asia, particularly China with its

- 324 -

large population, also presents new opportunities. I.: Thank you, Steven.

6. Research

6.1. (I = Interviewer, B.R. = Bob Richardson)

I.: Why is research such an important step in any public relations program?

B. R.: Well, before any public relations program can be undertaken, information must be gathered. Only if you perform this first step can you begin to make policy decisions and determine strategies for effective communications programs. So, basically, it's an integral part of the planning, program development and evaluation process.

I.: What kinds of research can be used to accomplish an organization’s objectives?

B. R.: Well, the choice really depends on the subject and situation. Time and budget are important considerations. Only informal research, for example, may be required because of its lower cost and the need for immediate information. Or a random scientific survey may be selected, because a political candidate wants to know exactly how he or she stands in the polls. So it all depends.

6.2. (I = Interviewer, B.R. = Bob Richardson)

I.: And what are the most common research techniques?

B.R.: The statistics show that the most common techniques are literature searches and database information retrieval. That is what we call secondary research because existing information in books, magazine articles, electronic databases and so on is used. This contrasts with primary research in which "new" and 'original" information is generated. Some examples of this technique are in-depth interviews, focus groups, surveys, and polls. As for the secondary research you can go to the library and look through reference books, academic journals or trade publications. Or you can go online and search the World Wide Web. The Internet is really a powerful research tool.

If research is needed on public opinion and attitudes, many public relations firms conduct short interviews with people in a shopping mall or at a meeting. This kind of research is called intercept interviews, because people are literally intercepted in public spaces and asked questions. Intercept interviews last only two to five minutes. At other times, the best approach is to do in-depth interviews to get more comprehensive information.

A good alternative to individual interviewing is the focus group. This technique is widely used in advertising, marketing and public relations. The purpose is to identify attitudes and motivations of important publics. Focus groups usually consist of 8 to 12 people representing the

- 325 -

characteristics of the target audience. A facilitator encourages group members to talk freely about a topic. It may last one or two hours. A focus group is an informal research procedure, which means that the results cannot be summarized by percentages or projected onto an entire population. Still, focus groups are used to identify the opinions and attitudes of the public.

7. Program Planning

7.1. (I = Interviewer, J. H. = Jeff Hunt)

I.: What are the advantages of developing a communications plan?

J.H.: One of the advantages is that it allows you to assess your situation, establish your objectives and maintain greater control over your communications program.

I.: What are the key steps in establishing a communications plan?

J.H.: Before you proceed in any direction, it’s important to know where you’re at. What are the strengths and weaknesses of your organization? What does your organization offer new members or the community at large? What do people currently think of your organization? Ask people outside your organization, formally or informally, what they know about it. A brief questionnaire will help you ask consistently organized questions and assure reliable responses. That will give you a new perspective in analyzing your situation and determining your future course of action.

The next step is establishing your objectives. Once you know where you’re at, you can then determine where you want to go and how to get there. When establishing objectives, remember they should be: improvement oriented, clearly defined, measurable, attainable and tied to specific expectations.

It is also essential that you identify your audience. First consider a broad audience to include those who affect your organization and those who are affected by your organization. You may cite groups like printing and publishing professionals, educators, students, government agencies, suppliers, clients and others.

The next step is to divide these larger groups into smaller, more reachable target audiences and prioritize them so that your communications effort is directed toward the most important among them. In this way you can direct your primary effort toward those groups on which you wish to have the greatest impact.

Once you’ve learned what your audiences think of your organization, you can then begin to mould your desired image. If you want the public to see your organization as progressive, professional or community-minded, look for opportunities to display those qualities. Then be sure your target audiences are made aware of what you’ve accomplished.

Of course, it’s important that you paint a true picture of your organization – not a

- 326 -

fabricated image. But unless the public is made aware of your progressiveness, professionalism and community-mindedness through your communications effort – you may never achieve your desired image.

Keep in mind that the events or activities of your organization may not receive news media coverage, but this does not mean that they cannot be important public relations opportunities.

I.: How do you usually plan to reach your key audience?

J.H.: Local and trade news media can be important vehicles for reaching your target audience. These include: local publicity distribution services, media list services, standard directory, television contacts, radio contacts and local libraries. Select a resource that best suits your needs, then develop and maintain a mailing list so that you won’t need to reinvent one with each publicity mailing. A mailing list should include the following: name of publication or station, editor’s or reporter’s name, address, phone number, any other pertinent information, such as deadlines, circulation figures, etc.

I.: Thank you Jeff.

7.2. (I = Interviewer, J. H. = Jeff Hunt)

I.: Sometimes people speak about traditional planners and sometimes – about contemporary planners. Is there any difference?

J.H.: Traditional planners set goals, identify objectives, and define action steps to reach their goals and objectives.

Contemporary planners have added buzz words like strategic, visioning, and organizational advancement to the planning lexicon. Jargon aside, public relations planning is simply identifying with whom you want to have a relationship, what you want from that relationship, and what you can do to achieve it. A public relations plan helps maintain selfdiscipline as well as being an excellent informational tool. This is especially true for public relations practitioners who have recently changed jobs or taken on new clients. Planning forces them to ask questions and review their underlying assumptions. Each successive step in the planning process sharpens their focus on how the organization operates and where it’s going, as well as clarifying public relations’ role in that operation.

I.: Could you deal with the difference between strategic and tactical planning?

J.H.: Despite its current overuse, the term “strategic” still has important meaning for planning, especially when it’s used in the traditional sense to distinguish strategic planning from tactical planning.

Strategic planning defines an overall framework, focus, and goals for a long-term or indefinitely on-going process or operation.

- 327 -

Tactical planning is an outgrowth of strategic planning that often focuses on a specific time period, for example, a five year plan, an annual plan, or a monthly plan, rather than the entire life of the organization.

The best public relations practitioners are equally comfortable doing both types of planning. They work together. Think of an organization’s strategic plan as its global view of the world and its tactical plan as its local street map. The tactical plan converts the broad brush strokes and goals of the strategic plan into a series of objectives which are practical, doable tasks involving specific campaigns, audiences, programs, or activities. Each of these tactical objectives – or projects

– can be completed independently of the others, but they are ultimately intended to move the organization toward its long-range goals. Tomorrow’s communicators will be people who can think strategically and deliver tactically. A well-written annual report or brochure is of no strategic value if it does not contribute to meeting corporate goals and objectives.

I.: Thank you Jeff.

8. Communication

8.1. (I = Interviewer, J.B. = Joel Babbit)

I.: What are the major steps of public relations process?

J.B.: They are research, planning and communication. The last one is also called execution, and this is the most visible part of public relations work.

I.: What does communication involve?

J.B.: In a public relations program communication is the implementation of a decision, the process and the means by which objectives are achieved. A program’s strategies and tactics may take the form of news releases, news conferences, special events, brochures, speeches, bumper stickers, and the like. The goals of the communication process are: to inform, persuade, motivate, or achieve mutual understanding.

I.: How can a person make an effective communicator?

J.B.: To be an effective communicator, a person must have basic knowledge of what constitutes communication and how people receive messages, how people process information and change their perceptions, and what kinds of media and communication tools are most appropriate for a particular message. Today’s communication revolution has given public relations professionals a full range of communication tools and media, and the traditional approach of simply obtaining publicity in the mass media – newspapers, magazines, radio, and television – is no longer sufficient, if it ever was.

I.: Why is communication in public relations often described as a two-way process?

J.B.: Feedback is important for effective communication. One-way communication, from

- 328 -

sender to receiver, only disseminates information. Such a monologue is less effective than two-way communication, which establishes a dialogue between them. The ideal public relations model is two-way symmetrical communication. That is, communication is balanced between the sender and the receiver. In this model, understanding is the principal objective of public relations, rather than persuasion. In reality, most organizations have mixed motives when they engage in two-way communication with targeted audiences. Although they may employ dialogue to obtain a better sense of how they adjust to the needs of an audience, their motive is often asymmetrical – to convince the audience of their point of view through dialogue.

I.: What is the most effective form of two-way communication?

J.B.: It is, of course, when two people are talking to each other. Small-group discussion is also effective. In both forms the message is fortified by gestures, facial expressions, intimacy, tone of voice, and the opportunity for instant feedback. If the listener asks a question or appears puzzled, the speaker has an instant cue and can rephrase the information or amplify a point. Barriers to communication tend to mount as one advances to large-group meetings and, ultimately, to mass media. Organizational material can reach thousands and, through the mass media, even millions of people at the same time, but the psychological distance between sender and receiver is considerably lengthened. Communication is less effective because the audience is no longer involved with the source. No immediate feedback is possible, and the message may undergo distortion as it passes through mass media gatekeepers.

I.: Thank you, Joel.

8.2. (I = Interviewer, J.B. = Joel Babbit)

I.: Does a special kind of communication arise when an organization faces a crisis?

J.B.: The communication process, difficult in the best of times, is severely tested in crisis situations when a high degree of uncertainty exists. At such times verifiable information about what is happening or has happened may be lacking. This causes people to become more active seekers of information and more dependent on the media for information to satisfy the human desire for closure. A crisis situation puts a great deal of pressure on an organization to respond with accurate, complete information as quickly as possible. How an organization responds in the first 24 hours determines whether the situation remains an incident or becomes a full-blown crisis.

I.: Are there any guidelines concerning communication in crisis?

J.B.: There are many lists giving advice on what to do during a crisis. Here are several suggestions: put the public first, take responsibility, be honest, never say “no comment”, set up a central information center, provide a constant flow of information and be accessible.

I.: Can you give an example of a successful crisis communication strategy?

- 329 -

J.B.: Yes, one good example comes from the natural food company Odwalla. The company got a phone call from Washington State health officials saying that the company’s apple juice was implicated in several cases of E.coli poisoning. Only 20 minutes later, Odwalla at a press conference announced its recall of all products containing unpasturized apple juice. Within 72 hours, the company set up a crisis website with the aid of its public relations firm, Edelman Worldwide. The company’s website, widely publicized, contained links to the Food and Drug Administration and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention so consumers could get additional information about E.coli contamination. The company president issued a full apology and garnered much public support by announcing that the company would pay any medical bills of the approximately 70 people poisoned. The result was public approval, and in one survey almost 90 percent of consumers said they would continue to buy the product.

I.: Thank you, Joel.

9. Evaluation

9.1. (I = Interviewer, B.R. = Bob Richardson)

I.: So, what are the prerequisites for the effective evaluation of a public relations program? B.R.: Well, before we can evaluate any PR program we must have a set of measurable objectives. First of all, public relations people and management should agree on the criteria that will be used to evaluate success in achieving objectives. We never should wait until the end of the public relations program to determine how it will be evaluated. If we are talking about an informational objective, measurement techniques must show whether information was successfully

communicated to target audiences or not.

Motivational objectives are more difficult to attain. If the objective is to increase sales or market share, it is important to show that public relations efforts caused the increase and not other marketing strategies.

9.2. (I = Interviewer, B.R. = Bob Richardson)

I.: What are some of the techniques used in evaluating a public relations program?

B.R.: The most widely practiced form of evaluating public relations programs is the compilation of press clippings and radio-television mentions. A small company working on a local basis usually would have a person clip the local newspapers. Large companies, like mine, usually hire clipping services to scan a large number of publications.

Public relations departments and firms also report how many people had the exposure to the message. We call this media impressions, which is the potential audience reached by a periodical or a broadcast program. If a story about a product appears in a newspaper with a

- 330 -

circulation of 50,000, the media impressions are 50,000. Estimated audiences for radio and television programs are also used to compile media impressions. On the Net an effective way to assess whether your web site is a success or not is to count hits or visits.

I.: And are there any ways to determine the cost of reaching each member of the audience? B.R.: Sure, there are. One of the techniques is called cost - effectiveness. For example, a commercial played during a popular sports competition, though expensive, is well worth its price, because it has a huge audience. Another technique is called cost -per- person or CPM. It is calculated by taking the total media impressions and dividing it by the cost of the publicity program. It is really important to determine the cost-effectiveness of public relations materials,

because it can help professionals control the price of message exposure.

10. Public Opinion and Persuasion

10.1. (I = Interviewer, B.R. = Bob Richardson)

I.: Bob, why do only a small number of people take part in public opinion formation on a specific issue?

B.R.: Basically, there are two reasons for this. First, the public generally tends to be passive. Few issues generate an opinion or feeling on the part of an entire population. Second, one issue may engage the attention of one part of the population, while another arouses the interest of another segment. For example, parents are more concerned about secondary education, while senior citizens form public opinion on the health issues.

I.: And who are the opinion leaders?

B.R.: Traditionally, we have defined two types of leaders. First are the formal opinion leaders. These people are heads of companies, elected officials, or leaders of membership groups. Often news reporters ask them for statements when a specific issue relates to their areas of responsibility or concern. People holding formal leadership positions also are called power leaders.

Second are the informal leaders, who can and do influence their peers because of some special characteristic. They may be role models who are admired and whose behavior is copied, or opinion leaders because they can exert peer pressure on others to accept something.

10.2. (I = Interviewer, B.R. = Bob Richardson)

I.: Bob, what is the role of persuasion in public relations?

B.R.: Well, persuasion has been around since the dawn of human history. It was formalized as a concept more than 2000 years ago by the ancient Greeks, who made rhetoric, which is the art of using language effectively and persuasively, part of their educational system. Today, public relations people use persuasion to reach and influence their audiences. At the same time,

- 331 -

persuasion or rhetoric should be considered more than a one - way flow of information, argument, and influence. It's an integral part of any democratic society. It is the freedom of speech used by every individual and organization to influence opinion, judgment, and action.

I.: And how is persuasion used?

B.R.: We use persuasion in three ways: first, to change or neutralize hostile opinions, second, to crystallize latent opinions and positive attitudes, and, third, to conserve favorable opinions.

The most difficult persuasive task is to turn hostile opinions into favorable ones. Usually, if people have decided on something, it is very hard to change their opinions, no matter how hard you try. People tend to ignore or disbelieve any information that contradicts their beliefs. Usually people generalize from personal experience and from what their peers tell them.

Persuasion is much easier if the message is compatible with a person's general disposition toward a subject. Non-profit agencies usually crystallize the public's latent inclination to aid the less fortunate by asking for a donation.

The easiest form of persuasion is communication that reinforces favorable opinions. Public relations people, by providing a steady stream of reinforcing messages, maintain people's ideas in sound condition. Quite a lot of companies have survived serious problems because public esteem for them minimized those problems. We call this continual effort to preserve the reservoir of goodwill preventative public relations, which is the most effective of all.

11. The Audience and How to Reach it

11.1. (I = Interviewer, B.R. = Bob Richardson)

I.: What does the term "audience" mean for a public relations professional?

B.R: Well, for us the audience is a complex intermingling of groups with diverse cultural, ethnic, religious, and economic attributes. Sometimes the interests of the members of the audience coincide and sometimes they conflict. For us, as public relations people, knowledge of these shifting audience dynamics is essential. A successful campaign must be aimed at those segments of the mass audience that are most desirable for its particular purpose and must employ those media most effective in reaching them.

Some of these segments are easily identifiable and reachable. We call them "prepackaged publics". These are well-organized groups whose members have some common interest that bonds them together. For us they constitute ready-made targets. In the United States the most significant aspect of the mass audience is diversity. Differences in geography, history, and economy among regions are marked. For example, farmers in Kansas have different attitudes from those of people living in the liberal city of Boston. Yet people in those two areas have national interests in common.

- 332 -

11.2. (I = Interviewer, B.R. = Bob Richardson)

I.: What are the most important characteristics of the today's American audience?

B.R.: Well, we have to remember that human beings and human drives have changed little over the centuries. Knowing how to appeal to the basic emotions is a fundamental need for men and women in public relations. But, naturally, specific aspects and attitudes of the audience change. In my opinion, the following things are the most important:

First, the public is increasingly visually oriented. The enormous impact of television on daily life is largely responsible for an increased visual orientation. Many people get virtually all their news from the TV screen.

Second, what we have in this country is a heavy emphasis placed on personality and celebrity. Sports stars, television and movie actors, and music performers are virtually worshipped by some fans. More and more, we see them being used as spokespeople and fund-raisers.

Third, strong distrust of authority and suspicion of conspiracy exist. People today suspect evil motives and readily believe rumors. So, public relations people have to bear this fact in mind when trying to go about their business. We should try to establish what we call "personal contact" with each member of the audience, so the members of the audience won't take it as some kind of propaganda thing thrust upon them by the company.

And, finally, in this age of globalization the international audience is expanding very fast. Growth of global corporations and expanded foreign marketing by smaller firms open up new public relations situations.

I.: Bob, are there any guidelines for matching audience and media?

B.R.: Sure. Print media are the most effective for delivering a message that requires absorption of details and contemplation by the receiver. Newspapers are the fastest with the most widespread impact. Magazines, while slower, are better directed to special-interest audiences. Books take even longer but can generate strong impact.

Television has the strongest emotional impact of all media. Its visual power makes situations seem close to the viewer. The personality of the TV communicator creates an influence that print media cannot match.

Radio's greatest advantages are flexibility and the ability to reach specific target audiences. Messages can be prepared for radio more quickly than on television, at much lower cost.

Online media is constantly growing in importance and now is as important as other electronic kinds of media.

In some campaigns the most cost-effective results come from use of a single medium. Other campaigns work best when several types of media are used.

- 333 -

12.Public Relations and the Law

12.1.(I = Interviewer, B.R. = Bob Richardson)

I.: Bob, talking about the legal issues in the work of a public relations practitioner, what are the most important points to remember here?

B.R: Well, legal issues is certainly a big topic. If we try to narrow it down a little bit, we can mention several things. Public relations staff must be particularly sensitive to the issue of privacy in at least four areas: first, employee newsletters, second, photo releases, third, product publicity and advertising, and the last point - media inquiries about employees.

Talking about employee newsletters, you should never forget that an organization doesn't have an unlimited right to publicize the activities of its employees. In short, one should avoid anything that might embarrass an employee or subject him or her to ridicule by fellow employees.

As for photo releases, usually, a public relations person doesn't need a signed release if a person gives "implied consent' by posing for a picture and is told how it will be used. Public relations agencies, however, should always take the precaution of filing all the photographs, dating them, and giving the context of the situation.

Then product publicity and advertising - as I have already said, an organization must have a signed release ready if it wants to use the photographs or comments of employees and other individuals in product publicity, sales brochures, and advertising. Written permission should be obtained if the employee's photo will appear in a sales brochure, for example.

And the final point concerning media inquiries about employees - here we have to remember the following thing. If you don't have the permission of an employee you should avoid providing information about his or her salary, home address, marital status, or job performance.

12.2. (I = Interviewer, B.R. = Bob Richardson)

I.: Obviously, public relations professionals are not experts in legal issues. What about the cooperation between lawyers and PR people?

B.R: You are right, PR people should be aware of legal pitfalls, but they are not lawyers. At the same time lawyers aren't experts in public relations and may not fully appreciate which issues are important for us.

So, it is essential for public relations practitioners and lawyers to cooperate. Even if they disagree on a future course of action in any particular situation, there is always ground for compromise. At least you should strive for that. And it's always a good thing if both public relations and legal staff have to report to the same top executive, who can listen to both versions of the story and decide which course of action the company should follow.

- 334 -

13.Corporations

13.1.(I = Interviewer, B.R. = Bob Richardson)

I.: Bob, you yourself work for a big company. How would you assess public's perception of big companies or corporations today? What should those companies do for the public to think positively of them?

B.R.: Well, naturally, a company's actions are important. But what also matters a lot, if not more, is how people perceive a company's conduct. A corporation's actions could be completely legal, technically sound, and financially efficient, and still some segments of the public would perceive it as cold, greedy, and corrupt. One job of public relations people is to see that this does not happen. The practitioner must work within the company to foster constructive and socially aware behavior, and he or she also has to work outside the company to convince the public that the firm is really a caring corporate citizen. Our job is especially difficult when a corporation announces large-scale dismissals. Obviously, this can only increase the public's distrust.

I.: Why is downsizing such a challenge?

B.R.: We, basically, have two challenges in downsizing: first is to convince top management that it should think about the dischargees as individuals, not as statistics. So the company should provide their ex-employees as much financial cushion and insurance protection as possible.

And the second thing is to make the public understand why the layoffs are justified. In today's world jobs essential 20 years ago are no longer needed. A company that remains static in a fiercely competitive world will not survive. And the public should be made aware of that.

13.2. (I = Interviewer, B.R. = Bob Richardson)

I.: What other important questions should people working in a PR department of a big company pay attention to?

B.R.: One issue that definitely needs attention is the question of environment. Public demand for protection of the environment places a heavy burden on corporations. Much of the world's pollution has been created by their manufacturing processes and use of their products. Actually, it's a tricky situation because the public wants those products but protests against the pollution they have created.

If a company wants to be considered socially responsible, it should eliminate the sources of environmental damage it has created. But we should never forget that corporate management must protect the interests of their shareholders. This often creates a pretty difficult situation and a challenge for PR specialists.

- 335 -

So, public relations practitioners should concentrate on three areas concerning the environment.

First, present to the public the company's environmental successes, its plans for long-term clean-up, and explanations of the company's problems in achieving its goals.

Second, inform top management of the public's perceptions and concerns about the company's environmental record. If the top executives are not really willing to spend time on solving environmental problems, PR practitioners should persuade them that it is crucial in protecting the company's reputation.

And, finally, conduct environmental cleanup campaigns within the company urging employees to adopt good environmental practices, such as recycling.

It's also important to remember that bad news attracts more attention than good news. Besides, the public tends to be suspicious of what big corporations are doing. We can respond to this psychological fact in two ways:

Look up all the environmentally positive actions the company has taken and publicize them in a creative manner, for example through videotaped presentations to community groups. This projects an image of a good corporate citizen.

Have a crisis plan ready in case of an environmental blunder. Be ready to explain how it happened, why it is difficult to correct and the company's plans to correct it. Of course, if the company is all talk and no action, no PR campaign can fix that.

14. Politics and Government

14.1. (I = Interviewer, B.R. = Bob Richardson)

I.: Bob, what is government relations?

B.R.: Government relations is a major component of public affairs. This activity is really important. Many companies, especially in highly regulated industries, have separate departments of government relations. The reason is that the actions of governmental bodies at the local, state, and federal level have a major impact on how a business operates. Government relations specialists have a number of functions. They gather information, disseminate management's views, and motivate employees to participate in the political process.

PR practitioners monitor the activities of many legislative bodies and regulatory agencies to keep track of issues coming up for debate and possible vote. This gathering of intelligence enables a corporation or an industry to plan ahead and if necessary adjust policies or provide information that may influence decisions of the government.

Monitoring government takes many forms. Probably the most active presence in Washington, D.C. and many state capitals is the trade association that represents a particular

- 336 -

spokesperson for sports fashion, automobiles, and electronic gadgets targeted at consumers in the European Union.

As culture is inherent to international public relations practices, it is important to take into account cross cultural differences when dealing with foreign audiences. For example, a tooth paste company once tried to sell its toothpaste in Southeast Asia by emphasizing that it "whitens your teeth." They found out that the local natives chew betel nuts to blacken their teeth because they found it attractive. Had the PR company behind this campaign analyzed the cross cultural issues related to their client’s product, the failure of this PR campaign could have been avoided.

I: That’s an interesting example. So how does culture influence the strategies that are used in public relations campaigns?

C.B: It has a great effect on the strategies that are used to deliver the message of a PR campaign and public relations practitioners should always be aware of that and use this to promote their product successfully in a foreign market. To be more specific, I’ll talk about the influence that culture has on the spoken word, the written word, communication channels and PR materials.

It is natural that speaking styles and the content used differ across cultures. For example, British and American communication styles are described as more 'explicit', meaning messages are conveyed through words. Ambiguity is avoided and spoken words have literal meaning. In many other cultures, communication is more 'implicit'. The message that listeners are likely to come away with is based on factors such as who is speaking, the context and non-verbal cues. Spoken words do not fully convey the whole story as listeners are expected to read between the lines.

With relation to content, speakers must be aware of the cross cultural differences in humor, metaphors, aphorisms and anecdotes. In addition, references to topics such as politics and/or religion can be a very sensitive issue in other cultures.

When the spoken word is used, the cross cultural distinctions of the target culture must be incorporated in order to help the speaker appeal to and identify with the audience.

As for the written word, press releases, features and copywriting all require a certain amount of cross cultural sensitivity when being applied abroad. Journalistic traditions, writing styles, news worthiness, delivery systems and whether a 'free press' exists are all areas that will affect how the written word is tailored.

Always remember that the goal is to write in a way that engages the readers in the target demographic. Some cultures may prefer more colorful and inspirational writing, others factual and objective. Some may be motivated by a religious or moral tone, others by a money-oriented or materialistic one.

I: You’ve talked about how culture affects spoken and written messages. How does it influence the choice of communication channels and PR materials?

- 338 -

Another way to increase public awareness is to create events that make news and attract crowds. Such activities might include an open house in a new hospital wing or a concert by members of the local symphony orchestra for an audience of blind children.

Interviewer: So making sure that the public knows about your nonprofit organization and its activities is step one in developing a PR campaign. What should be done next?

Derek Avery: The next task is to induce individuals and families to use an organization's services. There are a lot of services available: free medical examinations, free clothing and food to the needy, family counseling, cultural programs at museums and libraries, and offers of scholarships. But they cannot achieve their full value unless potential users know about them.

Because of embarrassment or shyness, those who would benefit from available services sometimes hesitate to use them. Written and spoken material designed to attract these people should emphasize the ease of participation and the privacy of consultations.

16.2. (I. = Interviewer, D.A. = Derek Avery)

I.: Promoting an organization's activities can also attract volunteer workers, can't it? D.A.: Certainly. This is another task of a PR department – recruiting and training

volunteers, and maintaining their enthusiasm so that they will be dependable long-term workers. Organizations usually have a chairperson of volunteers, who works with the public relations director (who is often called community relations director). In the United States, the number of volunteers is impressive: one in five American adults volunteers time for charitable causes.

I.: What motivates men and women to volunteer?

D.A.: There can be several reasons. The sense of making a personal contribution to society is a primary factor. Volunteer work can fill a void in the life of an individual who no longer has business or family responsibilities. It also provides social contacts.

Social prestige plays a role, too. Appearing as a model in a fashion show that raises funds for scholarships or serving as a guide in a historical museum attracts individuals who enjoy being seen in a prestigious setting.

Finally a powerful motivating force for some volunteers is religious commitment. I.: How do you recruit volunteers?

D.A.: It is important that recruiters make it clear to potential workers what exactly they will be asked to do and offer a selection of tasks suitable for differing tastes. Otherwise, a volunteer might quit after a short while.

Like all people, volunteers enjoy recognition, and they should receive it. Some ways of expressing the appreciation of their help are certificates of commendation or luncheons at which their work is praised.

- 340 -

I.: What other important objectives does a PR campaign have?

D.A.: The last, but not least goal is fund-raising. Finding ways to pay the bills is a critical problem for almost all nonprofit organizations, even those that receive government grants that finance part of their work.

I.: Thank you, Derek.

17. Entertainment and Travel

17.1. (I. = Interviewer, P.B. = Professor Bowles)

I.: Probably a lot of people will admit that they know more about what's going on in the life of a much-talked-about star in far away Hollywood than in the life of their cousins who live just 30 miles away. What are the psychological explanations of why we are so obsessed with celebrities?

P.B.: There are several possible explanations. We should probably go back to the earlier days of personality buildup. Before television gained its popularity, the publicity departments of the motion picture studios promoted their male and female stars as glamorous figures who lived in a special world of privilege and wealth. Young people with and without talent came to Hollywood dreaming of achieving such glory for themselves. Thousands more back home read with relish inflated stories about them in fan magazines imagining themselves in the glamour figures' places. So wish fulfillment is one of possible explanations. Now when you see celebrities on your TV in your family living room, they seem much closer than the remote gods and goddesses in the glory days of the motion picture studios.

Another reason is that many ordinary people who lead routine lives yearn for heroes. Professional and big-time college sports provide personalities for hero-worship. Publicists emphasize the performances of certain players, and television game announcers often build up the stars' roles out of proportion to their achievements. This emphasis creates hero figures for youthful sports enthusiasts that see them as role models. The same can be said about entertainers and politicians.

I.: How important are these psychological explanations for a PR practitioner?

P.B.: They are very important especially if a PR practitioner is working on building up the public image of an individual. It can be very helpful to analyze the ways these psychological factors can be applied. Obviously, the client's cooperation is vital in promotional work, so a good publicist should explain this background and should tell the client why certain actions are planned.

I.: Thank you, Professor Bowles.

17.2. (I.= Interviewer, P.B. = Professor Bowles)

I.: What are some of the responsibilities of a PR practitioner when he or she is in charge of

- 341 -