- •Предисловие
- •1. The Compound sentence
- •1.1. State the type of coordination in the following sentences. Translate into Russian.
- •1.2. Insert the most appropriate conjunction. Sometimes more than one variant can be possible.
- •1.3. Translate into English. Use the inverted word order.
- •1.4. Comment on the means of connection in the following compound sentences. Translate into Russian.
- •1.5. Insert the necessary conjunctions and comment upon them. Sometimes more than one variant can be possible.
- •1.6. Complete the sentences using different types of coordination. Be specific.
- •1.7. Translate into English.
- •1.8. Complete the following sentences.
- •The complex sentence
- •2. The Types of subordination
- •2.2. Define whether the subordination is parallel or consecutive. Name the types of clauses. Translate into Russian.
- •3. Subject clauses
- •3.1. Point out the subject clauses. Translate into Russian.
- •3.2. Translate into English using the corresponding emphatic constructions.
- •3.3. Complete the sentences.
- •3.4. Answer the following sentences using the “emphatic it.”
- •4. Predicative clauses
- •4.1. Point out the predicative clauses. Translate into Russian.
- •4.2. Complete the sentences using predicative clauses.
- •4.3. Translate into English using predicative clauses.
- •5. Object clauses
- •5.1. Point out the object clauses. Translate into Russian.
- •5.2. Put the verb in brackets in the correct form. Sometimes more than one variant can be possible.
- •5.3. Paraphrase the sentences with object clauses to use inverted word order in the principal clause.
- •5.4. Define what types of clauses are introduced by what. Translate into Russian.
- •6. Attributive clauses
- •6.1. Point out the appositive clauses. Translate into Russian. Analyse the antecedent and the connective.
- •6.2. Complete the sentences with an appropriate antecedent.
- •6.3. Point out the relative restrictive clauses. Translate into Russian. Analyse the antecedent and the conjunction.
- •6.4. Translate into English.
- •6.5. Insert the appropriate article.
- •6.6. Complete the sentences by using a particularizing clause.
- •6.7. Complete the sentences by using a classifying clause with the antecedent given in italics.
- •6.8. Point out the relative non-restrictive clauses. Translate into Russian. Analyse the antecedent and the conjunction.
- •6.9. Point out the relative clauses. Decide if they are restrictive or non-restrictive and punctuate accordingly. Translate into Russian.
- •6.10. Point out the continuative clauses. Translate into Russian. Analyse the antecedent and the conjunction.
- •6.11. Complete the sentences with a suitable attributive clause.
- •6.12. Define the type of attributive clauses (appositive, limiting, non-limiting, continuative). Translate into Russian.
- •6.13. Complete the sentences.
- •6.14. Insert the appropriate linking word. Sometimes more than one variant is possible.
- •6.15. Transform the sentences with the help of attributive clauses.
- •6.16. Translate into English using attributive clauses.
- •6.17. Complete the sentences with who, whom, which or that. Define the type of the clauses. Sometimes more than one variant can be possible.
- •7. ADverbial clauses
- •7.1. Point out the adverbial clauses and define their semantic type. Translate into Russian.
- •7.2. Transform the sentences with the help of adverbial clauses of time.
- •7.3. Fill in the gaps with by, by the time, until.
- •7.4. Translate into English using the correct verb form.
- •7.5. Transform the sentences with the help of adverbial clauses of purpose.
- •7.6. Rephrase the sentences using the words in bold.
- •7.7. Join the sentences using the purpose word given.
- •7.8. Translate into English using adverbial clauses of purpose.
- •7.9. Transform the sentences with the help of adverbial clauses of result.
- •7.10. Translate the sentences into English using adverbial clauses of result.
- •7.11. Transform the sentences with the help of adverbial clauses of reason.
- •7.12. Translate the sentences into English using adverbial clauses of reason.
- •7.13. Underline the correct item.
- •7.14. Define the type of conditional sentence. Translate into Russian.
- •7.15. Transform the sentences with the help of adverbial clauses of condition.
- •7.16. Translate the sentences into English using adverbial clauses of condition.
- •7.17. Transform the sentences with the help of adverbial clauses of concession.
- •7.19. Fill in the gaps.
- •7.20. Complete the missing parts of the sentences.
- •7.21. Rephrase the sentences using the words in bold.
- •7.22. Translate the sentences into English using adverbial clauses of concession.
- •7.23. Rephrase the following sentences using the words in bold.
- •7.24. Fill in the correct word.
- •7.25. Find the mistakes and correct them.
- •7.26. Point out the adverbial clauses and define their semantic type. Translate into Russian.
- •8. Parenthetical clauses
- •8.1. Point out the parenthetical clauses. Translate into Russian.
- •8.2. Paraphrase each two simple sentences into one complex with a parenthetical clause.
- •9. Sentences with mutually subordinated clauses
- •9.1. Analyse the following sentences with mutually subordinated clauses. Translate into Russian.
- •9.2. Insert the verb in the correct form.
- •9.3. Translate into English.
- •10. Appended clauses
- •10.1. Analyse the following sentences with appended clauses. Translate into Russian.
- •10.2. Complete the flowing sentences.
- •11. Absolute (independent) subordinate clauses
- •11.1. Analyse the clauses with implied condition or concession. Translate into Russian.
- •12. Grammatical homonyms
- •12.1. Analyse the members of the sentences introduced with with. Translate into Russian.
- •12.2. Analyse the members of the sentences introduced with as if. Translate into Russian.
- •12.3. Is the underlined word an adjective, a preposition, a conjunction, or an adverb? To what semantic group does it belong? Single out homonymous parts of speech.
- •13. Connectives
- •13.1. Point out the connectives and analyse them. Translate into Russian.
- •13.2. Insert the most appropriate connectives. Sometimes more than one variant is possible.
- •13.3. Use whatever, whoever, wherever, whenever, whichever, however.
- •13.4. Comment upon the way of introducing the sub-clauses. Translate into Russian.
- •13.5. Join the sentences, then identify the function of the linking words in brackets.
- •13.6. Replace the underlined words with synonymous ones.
- •13.7. Complete the sentences using an appropriate linking word.
- •14. Inversion
- •14.1. Explain the cases of inversion n the following sentences.
- •14.2. Complete each sentence with an appropriate phrase.
- •14.3. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first one, using the word given. Do not change the word given.
- •14.4. Complete each sentence with a suitable phrase containing the verb in brackets in an appropriate form.
- •14.5. Emphasize the underlined phrases using the inverted words order.
- •15. Revision
- •15.1. Analyse the following sentences. Define the types of the subordinate clauses. Translate into Russian.
- •15.2. Translate into English.
- •15.3. Combine the two sentences into one sentence using so, so that, because (of), since, as.
- •15.4. Translate into English.
- •Appendix 1. Texts for analysis Text 1
- •(Jackie Walters. Why is English the international lingua franca?)
- •Appendix 2. Glossary
- •List or recommended books
Appendix 1. Texts for analysis Text 1
As a means of expression of an insular population with specific political and social behaviour, English has become an international communication tool, in the wake of the economic and scientific expansion of Great Britain, and later the United States.
Introduced in the 5th century into southern England by the Angles (whence its name), English is an Indo-European language. Typical pairs such as father/mother, brother/sister, are evidence of it and the relation between father and the Sanskrit pitar, the Persian pedar, the Latin pater, has long been proven.
In the 15th century the era of modern English had begun: when declensions and grammatical genders disappeared, tenses relaxed, and the list of irregular verbs stabilised, the language registered the blossoming of idiomatic expressions, after the Anglo-Saxon model of phrasal verbs, and thus acquired another definitive and significant characteristic. Finally, in the 16th and 17th centuries, technical vocabulary relied heavily on Latin.
From the 18th century on, English became the language from which other European, then world tongues, borrowed the most. In the 15th century, the English spoken in the United States directly influenced that spoken in England. This North American English was increasingly used as an example and a reference.
How the English language spread
Initially the spreading of English was colonial. Throughout the world, from the United States to Australia, from South Africa to Canada, but also from Nigeria to India, two enormous, densely populated countries, where it enjoys the status of official language, English was brought by British settlers and their descendants, through England's conquests.
Both world wars have reinforced this tendency. The Treaty of Versailles, drafted for the first time in two languages, English and French, was innovative by guaranteeing the diplomatic status of the former. In 1945, American English had the prestige of the liberators, whose material wealth was envied. It kept a similar status in the countries under Soviet control: it was the language of civilisation and freedom.
At the cutting edge of technical progress and scientific research, Anglophone North America naturally created terms matching the new products it developed. Its language evolved at the rhythm of the changes in society and its aspirations, before inspiring the rest of the world. Neologisms grew with the economic expansion and fed the cultural influence.
With more than 320 million speakers, English is today the most widely spoken language in the world after Chinese (Mandarin). The number of people who master English in the world has reached a critical threshold: most of the time, two non-Anglophone strangers will automatically communicate in English, which has become the entire planetХs lingua franca. It is by far the first foreign language taught. Countries such as Japan and Israel use it first and foremost to teach the outside world about their values and culture.
English globalised
The geo-political dominance of English is henceforth well ensured and is backed by a relatively homogeneous international usage in writing, but often influenced in the spoken language by the linguistic, cultural, and social diversity of the speakers, and even different from the best accepted styles of the big Anglophone countries. International relations of all kinds: media, music, business documents, contribute to its spreading. An increasingly large number of words are becoming international in the field of sports or games (surfing, bowling), science and technology (aviation, tourism: jumbo jet, charter; oil: off shore; audiovisual: tuner, and most of all in information technology). Most scientific communication takes place in English. Numerous products, no matter what their country of origin, have a trademark based on English (Nesquik, Mobistar, Pocari Sweat, GB Quick, etc.).
As for acronyms, they are increasing in numbers. If some get translated, like AIDS (SIDA), others keep the English version: LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation), USB (Universal Serial Bus), etc.
Certain syntaxes are, more subtly, influenced by English: voyagez/reis Pullman; le débat était centré autour du chômage (instead of centré sur; from to centre around). Or tracht uit te vinden wat hij ... (from try to find out, instead of te weten komen).
The study of English thus runs into the problem of norms. In each country, education tends to favour a certain geo-style over another.
But external pressure leans towards tolerance. Among the unification forces are the media, language schools, and the often-efficient double Dutch of tourists or business agents. And this is how international English is making its way, sometimes totally bewildering old school Brits.