2. Переведите усеченные конструкции, обращая внимание на обстоятельства времени, которые являются сигналами к употреблению глагола в той или иной временной форме. Составьте с ними полные предложения.

1. … (often, usually, always, sometimes, seldom) the elements of language are socially situated, the problems are discussed, cross-cultural communication is regulated, words are misinterpreted, metaphors are used, people are offended;

2. … now (at the moment of speech) the problem is being discussed, you know what is being thought and said, the car is being driven on the left side of the road;

2. … already, by now (by the moment of speech) a cultural conflict has been arisen, the norms of behaviour of people have been changed, he has been offended, the dispute has been resolved;

3. … last …, … ago, in 1997 (date) traditions were created long ago, last time he was listened attentively; the holiday was celebrated two day ago, Alexander Graham Bell was born on March 3, 1847.

3. Прочитайте советы, как лучше осуществлять коммуникацию на английском языке. Поставьте глаголы в скобках в форму действительного или страдательного залога. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Many cross-cultural communication misunder­standings (to cause) by the use of negative questions and answers. For example, the re­sponse to "Are you not coming?" may be 'yes', meaning 'Yes, I am not coming.'

2. Cross-cultural communication (to enhance) through taking turns to talk, making a point and then listening to the response.

3. If you are unsure whether something (to understand), write it down and check. This can be useful when using large figures. For exam­ple, a billion in the USA is 1,000,000,000,000 while in the UK it is 1,000,000,000.

4. When communicating across cultures never assume the other party (to understand). Be an active listener. Summarise what (to say) in order to verify it. This is a very effective way of ensuring accurate cross cultural communica­tion (to take place).

5. Even the most well educated foreigner (not to have) a complete knowledge of slang, idioms and sayings. The danger (to be) that the words (to understand) but the meaning (to miss).

4. Прочитайте текст.

TEXT

CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS

The key to effective cross-cultural communication is knowledge. First, it is essential that people understand the potential problems of cross-cultural communication and make a conscious effort to overcome these problems. Second, it is important to assume that one’s efforts will not always be successful, and adjust one’s behaviour appropriately.

For example, one should always assume that there is a significant possibility that cultural differences are causing communication problems, and be willing to be patient and forgiving, rather than hostile and aggressive, if problems develop. One should respond slowly and carefully in cross-cultural exchanges, not jumping to the conclusion that you know what is being thought and said.

William Ury’s (Senior Fellow of the Harvard Negotiation Project) suggestion for heated conflicts is to stop, listen, and think, or as he puts it "go to the balcony" when the situation gets tense. By this he means withdraw from the situation, step back, and reflect on what is going on before you act. This helps in cross-cultural communication as well. When things seem to be going badly, stop or slow down and think. What could be going on here? Is it possible I misinterpreted what they said, or they misinterpreted me? Often misinterpretation is the source of the problem.

Active listening can sometimes be used to check this out–by repeating what one thinks he or she heard, one can confirm that one understands the communication accurately. If words are used differently between languages or cultural groups, however, even active listening can overlook misunderstandings.

Miscommunication between people happens all the time, especially when one of the parties is using a second language. Misunderstandings lead to doubt about the real intent of others.

Every country has its own communication style and habits. English speakers have the habit of using sport and military metaphors. They even use mixed metaphors and dead metaphors*. For example, they talk about “leveling the playing field” before they “charge straight in” to the “front line of operations”. They can “step up to the plate and grab the bull by the horns”. Americans like to use slang words and phrases that even other Americans don’t always understand. Japanese people do not like to refuse something, so they say that it will be discussed “later”. Later means never. French people can get easily offended. For example, every word has to have a French translation – e-mail, mail are too English, and so the word “courriel” was created. Germans love details and Italians don’t. And the list of generalized differences can go on and on.

English speakers can rapidly create bad impression by being inappropriately informal. Many cultures have a different concept of respect and formality. In many cultures people will only address others using personal names after several months – or not at all. Native English speakers from all countries generally address acquaintances on the first name basis faster than in some cultures. Americans are the champions with the general use of nick names. Beginning your conversation informally in many countries can be insulting.

* dead metaphors – стертые метафоры