Shaping public opinion

In many areas of the world, governments determine which, opinions their citizens may or may not (express). People who (assert! views that their rulers do not approve of may (subject) to imprisonment - or worse. Citizens of western democracies (be) fortunate to live in nations where freedom of opinion and expression generally (take) for granted.

Freedom of opinion, however, does not mean that all ideas and opinions (flourish). Both private groups and the government itsel today attempt (influence) which opinions do (take) hold in the publi imagination. Few ideas (spread) spontaneously. Usually, whether they (be) matters of fashion, science, or politics, ideas must vigorousl (promote) to become widely (know) and (accept). For example, the clothing, sports and entertainment fads that occasionally seem (appear) from nowhere and sweep the country before (replace) bjt some new trend are almost always the product of careful marketing campaigns by some commercial interests, rather than spontaneous phenomenon. Even in the sciences, (consider) the bastions of objectivity, new theories not always (accept) simply on their own merit. Often, the proponents of a new practice must (campaign) within the scientific community on behalf of their views. Like their counterparts in fashion and science, successful or at least widely (hold) political ideas (be) the products of carefully (orchestrate) campaigns by government or by (organize) groups and interests, lather than the results of spontaneous popular enthusiasm.

Kx. 9. Explain different uses of 'should' and translate the sentences into Russian

1 The idea that political systems can and sho_uM be judged by their material performance is a familiar one.

.'. Communitarian theorists argue that the 'politics of rights' should be replaced by a 'politics of the common good'.

<. Dominant party systems should not be confused with the one-party systems, although they may at times exhibit similar characteristics.

■I. Intraparty democracy implies that there should be broad

participation in the election of leaders and selection of

candidates, and in the policy formulation. i Once elected, representatives should think for themselves and

exercise independent judgement. (■ That event wasn't mentioned in the TV coverage because

information about it should have been delivered well in advance. ' The doctrine suggests that voters (should! select governments on

the ground of policies and issues. ^ Should they win the election in the first round the country

could/would have a one-party government, ч The idea that representatives should resemble the represented

causes a number of problems. ш They suggest that 'strong' government should be understood in

terms of popular support and the willingness of citizens to obey

and respect the government.

Кч. 10. Translate into English, using 'l_ in its different meanings

I Нерегулируемая конкуренция осуждается не только за то, что она порождает жадность и конфликты, но и потому, что она неэффективна и непродуктивна.

' Чтобы политика была принята в обществе, должен сущест­вовать высокий уровень согласия в этом обществе (инф. комплекс).

Чтобы пррпесс политики работал эффективно, переводя надежды в результаты, он должен быть открытым для кон­троля и критики (инф, комплекс).

4. Этот подход имеет то преимущество (the merit), что позво­ляет (to allow for) существование гибкости подходов и вы­ражение различных точек зрения.

5. Чтобы .что произошло, необходимо согласие подавляющего большинства членов Палаты представителей.

6. Было бы глупо предполагать, что все решения формируют­ся лишь под давлением чиновников и в свете их видения проблем, ибо/так как это означало бы игнорирование роли лидеров в истории ('for' в начале предложения).

7. Было бы упрощением утверждать, что чиновники руко­водствуются только интересами своей карьеры и той орга­низации, в которой они работают, так как нельзя сбрасы­вать со счетов их личные симпатии и индивидуальные це­ли.

8. Очень трудно отнести Европейский Союз к той или иной политической категории, так как результатом историче­ского развития стала организация, имеющая черты и меж­государственной и надгосударственной структуры.

Ex. П. Translate into Russian, paying attention to the underlined words

1. The pattern of relationships amongst parties only constitutes a system if it is characterised by stability and a degree of orderliness.

2. Policy makers operate within an existing pattern or framework.

3. Evidence of a 'crisis' of party politics can be found in a decline of both party membership and partisanship, reflected in partisan dealignment.

4. The 'bureaucratic politics' model emphasises the impact on decisions of bargaining between personnel and agencies.

5. Dramatic electoral swings against governing parties have intensified such concerns.

6. This approach is reflected in the distinction between 'major' parties and 'minor' ones (although neither category can be defined with mathematical accuracy).

7. Decisions are often made on the basis of inaccurate information, and the benefits of various actions may in any case not be comparable.

8. In the case of 'think tanks', interests groups have been formed specifically to develop policy proposals and to campaign for their acceptance amongst key players in the policy process.

9. In both cases, there is an elaborate and formalised system of group consultations oriented around a widely agreed set of policy objectives and priorities.

10. Plato advanced the idea of rule by the virtuous. In this form, the case for government for the people amounts to an argument in favour of enlightened despotism.

11. Nonwestern societies that may appear to perform poorly in relation to citizenship indicators (with, for example, poor records on human rights) may succeed in creating a stronger sense of community and social belonging.

Ex. 12. Translate the sentences into English, distinguishing between defining and non-defining relative clauses

1. Society is divided into the few who have power and the many who do not.

2. The few who govern are not typical of the masses who are governed.

3. Only non-elites who have accepted the basic elite consensus can be admitted to governing circles.

4. In common with other 'founding fathers' who wrote the US Constitution Thomas Jefferson was fiercely critical of parties and factions.

5. The only thing that matters is that the party has won the elections, d. Criticism and protest can more easily be ignored if they stem from

the parties that are no longer regarded as genuine rivals for power. 7. The process of coalition formation ensures a broad responsiveness

that cannot but take account of competing views. s. The post-election negotiations and horse-trading that take place

can take weeks.

^lJ. As political 'insiders', parties are tainted by power, ambitions and corruption that is often associated with high office.

10. One of the problems that parties suffer from is their real or perceived oligarchic character.

11. This phenomenon has been reflected in the emergence of new political movements the principal attraction of which is that they are untainted by having held power.

12. Infighting may be seen as a means of guaranteeing argument or debate in a system in which small parties are usually marginalised.

13. Rational actor model is more easily applied to individuals, who may have an ordered set of preferences, than it is to groups, within which there are likely to be a number of conflicting objectives.

14. The same concern was taken up in the 17^Ih century by John Locke, who argued that the right to vote was based on the existence of natural rights...

10. The public- employment program, which was in trouble before he took office, was quickly eliminated.

11. It is contended that some of the Senate rules (and traditions, which often have the effect of rules), favour the interests of minorities over majorities.

12. These regularised patterns of behaviour, which we often call rules or structures, and the like, can affect decision-making and the content of public policy.

13. Congress balked at doing away with the job-training programs, of which the Democrats were especially supportive.

14. Parties are seen as bureaucratized political machines, whose grass­roots members are either inactive or engaged in dull and routine tasks.

Ex. 13. Translation of the compound and complex sentences

1. What is vital is to establish the 'relevance' of parties in relation to the formation of governments.

2. What ensures the long-term survival of a regime is its responsiveness to popular demands and pressures.

3. F.ven governments that are formed from a coalition of parties are more likely to foster unity and agreement than ones that' consist of separate individuals each with his or her own priorities.

4. The problem that parties have is that they themselves are socialised by experience of government. t

5. Chief amongst these drawbacks is that responsiveness may generate instability, insofar as it fosters the illusion thai that, political system can meet all demands and accommodate all, 'inputs'. , .1

6. The virtue of social justice is that, by taking the distribution of wealth away from the vagaries of the market, it ensures that allj citizens have a stake in society and that each of them has an incentive to contribute.

7. Nonwestern societies that may appear to perform poorly inj relation to citizenship indicators may nevertheless succeed in creating a stronger sense of community and social belonging, i

8. It is in this area that writers, academics and philosophers seemingly unconnected with the world of practical politics may play a vital role in the process of policy initiation by developing 'core' values and the theories, later developed into specific policy proposals by leaders and parties.

Ex. 14. Translate the text into English