Text 2: legitimacy and political stability

The issue of legitimacy, the rightfulness of a regime or system of rule, is linked to the oldest and one of the most fundamental of political debates, the problem of political obligation.

The classic contribution to the understanding of legitimacy as a sociological phenomenon was provided by Max Weber who constructed three types of authority.

His first type of political legitimacy, traditional authority, is based on long-established customs and traditions. In effect, traditional authority is regarded as legitimate because it has 'always existed'; it has been sanctified by history because earlier generations had accepted it. Typically, it operates according to a body of concrete rules, that is, fixed and unquestioned customs, that do not need to be justified because they reflect the way things have always been. The most obvious examples of traditional authority are found amongst tribes or small groups in the form of patriarchalism and gerontocracy. Traditional authority is closely linked to hereditary systems of power and privilege, as reflected, for example, in the survival of dynastic rule in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Morocco. Although it is of marginal significance in advanced industrial societies, the survival of monarchy, albeit in a constitutional form, in the UK, Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain, for example, helps to shape political culture by keeping alive values such as deference, respect and duty.

Weber's second form of legitimate domination is charismatic authority. This form of authority is based on the power of an individual's personality, that is, on his or her 'charisma'. Owing nothing to a person's status, social position or office, charismatic authority operates entirely through the capacity of a leader to make a direct and personal appeal to followers as a kind of hero or saint. Nevertheless, when legitimacy is constructed largely or entirely through the power of a leader's personality, there are usually two ronsequences. The first is that, as charismatic authority is not based on formal rules or procedures, it often has no limits. The leader is a Messiah, who is infallible and unquestionable; the masses become I ol lowers or disciples, who are required only to submit and obey. Secondly, so closely is authority linked to a specific individual, that it is difficult for a system of personal rule to outlive its founding figure.

Weber's third type of political legitimacy, legal-rational, links authority to a clearly and legally defined set of rules. In his view, lej'.al-rational authority is the typical form of authority operating in most modern states. The power of a president, prime minister or pivernment official is determined in the final analysis by formal, i (institutional rules, which constrain or limit what an office holder is able to do. The advantage of this form of authority over both :iactional and charismatic authority is that, as it is attached to an i>ltice rather than a person, it is far less likely to be abused or to give use to injustice. Legal-rational authority therefore maintains limited n'UTiiment and, in addition, promotes efficiency through a rational itmsion of labour. However, Weber also recognised a darker side to ibis type of political legitimacy. The price of efficiency would, he i.-aicd, be a more de-personalised and inhuman social environment i \ lulled by the relentless spread of bureaucratic forms of organisation.

Although Weber's classification of types of legitimacy is still seen ■<•■ iflcvant, it also has its limitations. One of these is that, in focusing "ii ihe legitimacy of a political regime or system of rule, it tells us little about the circumstances in which political authority is challenged as a result of unpopular policies or a discredited leader or government. More significantly, as Beetham⁷ (1991) pointed out, to see legitimacy, as Weber did, as nothing more than a 'belief in legitimacy' is to ignore how it is brought about. This may leave the determination of legitimacy largely in the hands of the powerful, who may be able 'to manufacture' rightfulness through public-relations campaigns and the like.

Beetham suggested that power can only be said to be legitimate if three conditions are fulfilled. First, power must be exercised according to established rules whether these are embodied in formal legal codes or informal conventions. Secondly, these rules must be justified in terms of the shared beliefs of the government and the governed. Thirdly, legitimacy must be demonstrated by an expression of consent on the part of the governed that, however unpopular leaders and policies might become, governments are elected to power, and can be elected out of it.

This highlights two key features of the legitimation process. The first is the existence of elections and patty competition, a system through which popular consent can be exercised. The second is the existence of constitutional rules that broadly reflect how people feel they should be governed.

AFTER-READING activity

♦ Read the text in more depth to do the 'After-reading exercises'

Ex. 1. Comprehension questions

1. ¹ Jeremy Beetham (1748-1832) - UK philosopher, legal reformer and founder of utilitarianism.

   What is the basis and concrete rules of 'traditional authority'?

2. How does it manifest itself in the modern world?

3. How does 'charismatic authority' operate?

4. What could its consequences be?

5. How does political legitimacy differ from both traditional and charismatic authority?

6. What could the price for a greater efficiency world be?

7. What constrains political legitimacy?

8. What conditions must be met to guarantee the legitimacy of any power?

9. What are the key features of the legitimation process?

Ex. 2. Terminology/Concepts

Л. Learn the terminology:

legitimacy ~ легитимность charisma — харизма tradition — традиция

class consciousness — классовое сознание

systems theory — теория систем (системный анализ)

patriarchalism — патриархат

gerontocracy — геронтократия (правление старейших) В. Match the notions with the definitions:

• The term ... encompasses anything handed down or transmitted from the past to the present (long-standing customs and practices, values and beliefs, etc.)

• ... was originally a theological term meaning the 'gift of grace', the source of power that Jesus exerted over his disciples. As a socio-political phenomenon it refers to charm or personal power.

• The term ... broadly means rightfulness, it therefore confers on an order or command of a binding character, thus transforming power into authority.

• ... treats the political system as a self-regulating mechanism responding to 'inputs'" (demands and support) by issuing authoritative decisions or 'outputs' (policies).

• ... is a subjective awareness of a class's objective situation and interests.

• ... is the domination of the father within the family or 'the master' over his servants.

• ... is the rule of the aged, normally reflected in the authority of village 'elders'.

• Work with the dictionary and consult the text to do ex. 3, 4

Ул. 3. Translate from English into Russian

Traditional authority has been sanctified by history; traditional .niihority is closely linked to hereditary systems of power; to be of marginal significance; charismatic authority; owing nothing to a

person's status; the masses become followers or disciples; to outlive one's founding figure; legal-rational authority; a depersonalized and inhuman social environment typified by the relentless spread of bureaucratic forms of organization; 'to manufacture' rightfulness through public relations campaigns and the like; rules are embodied in formal legal codes or informal conventions.

Ex. 4. Translate from Russian into English

Законность (правомочность) режима или системы правления; классический вклад в понимание законности; эта власть функ­ционирует исключительно благодаря способностям лидера; вы­ступать с прямым обращением к последователям; от них требу­ется покорность и подчинение; связать власть с четко сформу­лированным и утвержденным законом перечнем правил; опа­саться чего-либо; бросить вызов (высказывать недовольство) политической власти; дискредитировавшее себя правительство; оставлять вопрос осуществления законности в руках влиятель­ных людей; подчеркнуть (выделить) что-либо.

Ex. 5. Fill in the blanks in column 'A' with the topical vocabulary units from column 'B\ making all necessary changes

B.

a. relevant

b. legitimacy

c. to be abused

d. the government, the governed

e. governments

f. abuse, phenomenon

g. consent

h. albeit

1. When ... is constructed largely or entirely through the power of a leader's personality, it often has no limits.

2. The advantage of legal-rational authority is that it is far less likely ... or give rise to injustice.

3. Although this classification of types of legitimacy is still seen as it also has its limitations.

4. These rules must be justified in terms of the shared beliefs of... and ...

5. Legitimacy must be demonstrated by an expression of... on the part of the governed.

6. ... are elected to power, and can be elected out of it.

7. Drugs unfortunately has become a social...

8. Governments that are seen as legitimate can usually maintain order

and pursue tough policies, ... slowly, by building coalitions.

i. the consequences

infallible

k. deference

1, obligatory m to justify n. obligations

o. to fulfill

9. The Bank's ability to maintain its integrity while paying due ... to the democratically elected authorities with which it works provides a model appropriate to a complex economy.

10. The sportsman made one more ... service, and won the match.

11. ... of the nuclear explosion in Japan in 1945 are still felt.

12. Nothing can ... the government's recent policies.

13. He definitely let us down, by not... any of our expectations.

14. All decisions of the UN Security Council are ... for all its members.

15. Every UN member — state must be guided by the ... set out in the UN Charter.

Kx. 6. Paraphrase the underlined parts, using the topical vocabulary

I. The rightfulness of a regime or system of rule is closely connected with one of the most fundamental of political debates, the problem of political commitment.

.'. Max Weber made a great contribution to the understanding of legitimacy as a sociological nojdm

* We must agree that traditional authority is based on the long-established customs and traditions.

I Traditional authority is viewed as legal and lawful because it has 'always existed'.

^ Political legitimacy is performed according to a body of

concrete rules, they do not need to he proved because they

reflect the way things have always been. f> It's quite tnie to say that traditional authority is closely linked to

hereditary systems of power and privilege. ' The survival of monarchy helps to shape political culture by

keeping alive values such as respect and duty, s Most political scientists admit that charismatic authority is

based on the power of an individual's personality. They

demonstrate unanimity of their views on the idea. ' If legitimacy is constructed through the power of a leader's

personality there are usually after-effects of such policy.

10. This rule is used without any limits.

11. The leader rules, the masses are required only to submit and obey.

12. The authority is so closely linked to a specific individual, that it is difficult for a system of personal rule to outlive its founding figure.

Ex. 7. Analyse the meaning of the verbs 'may/might', translate the sentences

1. a) You may not abuse her patience any longer. We won't let

you do it.

b) You may be abusing her patience, so she won't listen to you.

2. a) The new governor may legitimate this draft programme.

b) The upper chamber of Parliament may be legitimating these amendments, we are to hear about the results in the near future.

3. a) The management may have consented to all the demands of

the workers. They promised to have reconsidered their position by the next meeting, b) The management might have consented to all just demands of the workers. Perhaps they would have reconsidered their position.

4. a) The newly-elected president may fulfill his promises, yet, b) He may have already fulfilled some of his obligations.

5. a) He may say something rational at the meeting. He always

knows what he is after, b) He might have said something rational.

6. a) You may run the work of our department at present. We

don't mind.

b) You might run the work of our department. You are quite qualified for that.

Ex. 8. Open the brackets, using the correct form of the Infinitive. Translate the sentences into Russian

1. The acceptance of capitalist values and beliefs by the working classes may (reflect) their understanding that capitalism works.

2. At that time civic culture may (be) more a consequence democracy than its cause.

3. Political culture may (provide) an index of the health democracy, but it may not (see) as a means of promoting stabte democratic rule.

4. What are the jury doing now? - They may (listen) to thj witnesses.

5. Members of the same class may (have) broadly similar ideas.

6. The tsarist regime in Russia might not (be able) to respond to the mixture of pressures created by early industrialisation.

7. The Committee may still (hesitate) about recommending the embargo to be lifted.

8. Before the revolution proletarian culture and ideas might (expect) to differ markedly from the bourgeois ones.

Ex. 9. Paraphrase the following sentences, using «may» with the correct form of the Infinitive

1. A very different view of the role and nature of political culture was perhaps developed within the Marxist tradition.

2. Perhaps modem marxists will accept that cultural, ideological and political competition does exist.

3. Not necessarily only Marx portrayed capitalism as a system of class exploitation.

4. Possibly you have heard that the theory of culture emphasises the degree to which the ideas of the mling class pervade society and become the 'mling ideas' of the age.

5. Maybe the workers will obligate the management to fulfill all their promises.

6. Perhaps the ideas and values that uphold the capitalist order have an overwhelming advantage over the ideas and values that question or challenge it.

7. Probably such ideological hegemony is successful because it operates behind the illusion of free speech, open competition and political pluralism.

к Possibly such a stance was supported by an important tradition of conservative social thought.

Ex. 10. Translate the following sentences, using *may (might)» and (he topical vocabulary

1. Может быть, лидеры профсоюзов все еще пытаются оправ­дать правительство и надеются прийти к взаимовыгодному соглашению.

.'. Возможно, он в целом был прав, но мы не смогли простить ему оскорбительных замечаний в наш адрес.

* Вы могли бы уже выполнить свои обещания. Почему вы до сих пор не сделали этого?

f Правительство могло бы выделять значительно большие суммы на решение социальных проблем.

^ Возможно, Вебер полагал, что законная власть правитель­ства определяется положениями конституции, обязатель­ной для граждан.

6. Может быть, они еще не пришли к согласию, их заявления противоречивы.

7. Вероятно, докладчик подтвердил свои доводы фактами, присутствующие не могли не согласиться с ними.

8. Возможно, новый губернатор будет осуществлять свою власть в соответствии с интересами народа.

Ex. 11. Translate into English, using can, must, may, should

1. Можно сказать, что власть является легитимной только тогда, когда выполняются три условия.

2. Эти правила должны быть оправданы с точки зрения со­гласования убеждений 'правящих' и 'управляемых'.

3. Легитимность должна быть продемонстрирована через вы­ражение согласия со стороны 'управляемых', так как, ка­кими бы непопулярными ни становились лидеры и их по­литика, правительства оказываются у власти или могут ли­шаться ее только путем выборов.

4. Должна существовать система, через которую можно вы-ражать это общественное согласие.

5. Должны существовать конституционные нормы, которые в общих чертах отражают мнение народа о том, как им (на- родом) следует управлять.

6. Игнорирование корней законности может оставить вопрос об определении этой законности в руках «сильных мира сего», которые ___£%£ «сфабриковать* правомочность через организацию кампаний «общественного мнения» и тому подобного.

Ex. 12.

A. Translate into Russian attributive words and word combinations:

public-relations campaign, greater efficiency world, left-wing, right-wing critics; conventional development wisdom.

key features, party competition, legitimation process, socialisation process, value system, group behaviour, propaganda machine.

B. Find sentences in the texts illustrating their usage.

Ex. 13. Translate the text into English