Text 1: party politics

A political party is a group of people that is organised for the purpose of winning government power, by electoral or other means. Parties are often confused with interest groups or political movements.

Four characteristics usually distinguish parties from other groups:

• Parties aim to exercise government power by winning political office (small parties may nevertheless use elections more to gain a platform than to win power).

• Parties are organised bodies with a formal 'card carrying' membership. This distinguishes them from broader and more diffuse political movements.

• Parties typically adopt a broad issue focus, addressing each of the major areas of government policy (small parties, however, may have a single-issue focus, thus resembling interest groups).

• To varying degrees, parties are united by shared political preferences and a general ideological identity.

Types of parties

A variety of classifications have been used for political parties. The most important of these are the following:

• cadre and mass parties

• representative and integrative parties

• constitutional and revolutionary parties

• left-wing and right-wing parties.

The most common distinction is that between cadre parties and mass parties.

The term cadre party originally meant a 'party of notables', dominated by an informal group of leaders who saw little point in building up a mass organisation. Such parties invariably developed out of parliamentary factions or cliques at a time when the franchise was limited. However, the term cadre is now more commonly used to

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denote trained and professional party members who are expected to exhibit a high level of political commitment and doctrinal discipline. The distinguishing feature of cadre parties is their reliance on a politically active elite (usually subject to quasi-military discipline) which is capable of offering ideological leadership to the masses.

A mass party, on the other hand, places a heavy emphasis on broadening membership and constructing a wide electoral base. The key feature of such parties is that they place heavier stress on recruitment and organisation than on ideology and political conviction.

Most modern parties fall into the category of what Otto Kirchheimer (1966) termed 'catch-all parties'. These are parties that drastically reduce their ideological baggage in order to appeal to the largest possible number of voters.

The second party distinction is that between so-called parties of representation and parties of integration. Representative parties see their primary function as being the securing of votes in elections. They thus attempt to reflect, rather than shape, public opinion. In this respect, representative parties adopt a 'catch-all' strategy and therefore place pragmatism before principle and market research before popular mobilisation. Tire prevalence of such parties in modem politics gave considerable force to arguments based on rational choice models of political behaviour which portray politicians as power-seeking creatures who are willing to adopt whatever policies are likely to bring them electoral success.

Parties of integration, in contrast, adopt pro-active, rather than reactive, political strategies; they wish to mobilise, educate and inspire the masses, rather than merely respond to their concerns.

The third type of classification distinguishes between constitutional parties and revolutionary parties. Constitutional parties acknowledge the rights and entitlements of other parties and thus operate within a framework of rules and constraints. Above all, constitutional parties acknowledge and respect the rules of electoral competition. They recognise that they can be voted out of power as easily as they can be voted into it. Mainstream parties in liberal democracies all have such a constitutional character.

Revolutionary parties, on the other hand, are anti-system or anticonstitutional parties, either of the left or of the right. Such parties aim to seize power and overthrow the existing constitutional structure using tactics that range from outright insurrection and popular revolution to the quasi-legalism practised by the Nazis and the Fascists.

The final way of distinguishing between parties is on the basis of ideological orientation, specifically between those parties labeled left-wing and those labeled right-wing. Parties seen as part of 'the Left' (progressive, socialist and communist parties) are characterised by a commitment to change, in the form of either social reform or wholesale economic transformation. These have traditionally drawn their support from the ranks of the poor and disadvantaged (in urban societies, the working classes). Parties thought to constitute 'the Right' (conservative and fascist parties in particular) generally uphold (he existing social order and are, in that sense, a force for continuity. Their supporters usually include business interests and the materially contented middle classes. However, this notion of a neat left-right party divide is at best simplistic and at worst deeply misleading. Not only are both the left and the right often divided along reformist/revolutionary and constitutional/insurrectionary lines, but also all parties tend to be 'broad churches' in the sense that they encompass their own left and right wings. Finally, the shift away from old class polarities and the emergence of new political issues such as environment, animal rights and feminism has perhaps rendered the conventional ideas of left and right redundant.

AFTER-READING activity

♦ Read the text in more depth to do the 'After-reading' exercises.

Ex. 1. Comprehension check

1 Give the definition and four characteristics of a political party. .'. What is the distinction between:

• cadre and mass parties;

• representative and integrative parties;

• constitutional and revolutionary parties;

• left-wing and right-wing parties?

' In what way can all mainstream parties be called 'broad churches'?

Lx. 2. Terminology

\. Learn the terminology:

faction фракция

fuetionalism фракционализм

'rational choice* 'machine polities' electoral college caucus

«рациональный выбор» политика партийных «боссов» коллегия выборщиков "кокус», фракционное совещание, конференция

женности); уделить особое внимание чему-либо (2); рациональ­ный выбор политики; стремящиеся к власти; вдохновлять мас­сы; реагировать на чаяния народа; действовать в рамках правил и ограничений; захватить власть и свергнуть существующий конституционный строй; полномасштабные экономические из­менения; мятежный.

В. Match the notions with the definitions:

• is an approach to politics based on the assumption that

individuals are rationally self-interested actors; an 'economic' theory of politics.

• ... is commonly used to mean a section or a group within a formation, usually a party. The term is often used pejoratively.

• is a style of politics in which party 'bosses' control a.mass

organisation through patronage and the distribution of favours.

• ... refers either to the proliferation of factions or to the bitterness of factional rivalry. The term is always pejorative, implying debilitating infighting.

• ... is a meeting of party members held to nominate election candidate or to discuss legislative proposals in advance of formal proceedings.

• is an indirect electoral mechanism; a body of electors

charged with responsibility for filling a party or public office.

• Work with the dictionary and consult the text to do ex. 3, 4

Ex. 3. Translate from English into Russian

To gain a platform than to win power; bodies with a formal 'card-carrying' membership; to adopt a broad issue focus; to have a single - issue focus; cadre and mass parties; a 'party of notables'; doctrinal discipline; quasi-military discipline; 'catch-all parties'; to; acknowledge the rights and entitlements of other parties; to be voted out of power and into it; mainstream parties; tactics that range froii elections to outright insurrection; the ranks of the poor an' disadvantaged; a force for continuity; this notion is at best simplistic and at worst deeply misleading; old class polarities.

Ex. 4. Translate from Russian into English

Осуществлять государственную власть; партии объединяются благодаря единым политическим взглядам (предпочтениям); разнообразие классификаций; представительские и объедини» тельные партии; партии левых и правых; продемонстрирован высокий уровень политического сознания (верности/ привер*

B.

a. recruited

b. reduction of armaments

Ex. 5. Fill in the blanks in column 'A' with the topical vocabulary units from column *B\ making all necessary changes

c. franchise

d. diffuse

e. integrity

f. by means of

g. content, discontent

h. integrated

1. Suffragettes in England fought for a universal...

2. They happened to be the first among those ... to serve in France.

3. The main aim of Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) II is ...

4. He was very much indifferent to his job, neither ... nor ... with it.

5. Some parties are seeking power ... bringing pressure to bear on the electorate.

d. Among the main principles of

the policy of peaceful

coexistence are sovereignty and

territorial ... 7. The very fact that parties are

organized bodies distinguishes

them from more ... political

movements, fc. Parties are ... by shared political

preferences and a general

i. recruitment, conviction

j. convincing

ideological identity. ^l' The term cadre (party) is

commonly used ... trained and

professional party members.

I ⁽i The leaders of a 'party of

notables' ... upon themselves and saw little point in building up a mass organization.

k. to denote

II The essential feature of cadre parties is their ... on a politically active elite.

12. The argument that a mass party 1. relied must place a heavy emphasis on broadening its membership

sounds quite ...

13. The key feature of'catch all m. reliance parties' is that they place heavier

stress on ... and organization than on ideology and political ...

Ex. 6. Make sentences with 'as iF and 'as though' according to the model. Explain the difference in meaning

Model 1: That house looks as if it is going to fail down. Model 2: That house looks as if it were going to full down.

1. After the interruption, the speaker carried on talking as if nothing (happen).

2. He asked me a few unpleasant questions as if he (not be) content with all the proposals.

3. The chairman sounded convincing but nobody paid much attention to his arguments any longer as if they (become) of no importance.

4. The party drew much support from the constituents and its leadership was so proud as. tjiojigh the whole world (belong) to it.

5. It looks as_if both sides (render) some provisions of the treaty redundant.

6. These parties reduce their ideological baggage drastically as though they (appeal) to the largest possible number of voters.

7. These quasi- winners behave as though they (secure) the majority of votes in the elections.

8. This party claims to be a mouth-piece of public opinion as though it (reflect) it.

Ex. 7. Translate into English, using 'as if, 'as though' and the topical vocabulary

1. Христианско-Демократический Союз сейчас ведет себя так, как будто он всегда поддерживал эту политику.

2. Он так отреагировал на наше замечание, как будто оно со^ гтержало в себе коренные изменения курса партии.

3. У председателя такой вид, как будто он совершенно не удовлетворен новыми поправками к повестке дня.

4. Избиратели поддержали его кандидатуру, как если бы пол­ностью полагались на его порядочность.

5. Вы постоянно распространяете старые взгляды нашей пар­тии, как будто не знаете, что мы уже предложили новые политические воззрения и подходы к решению задач, стоящих перед страной.

6. СМИ так комментируют последние предложения теневого кабинета по Европейскому Союзу, как будто он уже готов пойти на компромисс с правительством.

7. Правительство ведет себя так, как будто в стране не суще­ствует оппозиционных партий.

<s. Политики подают себя так, как будто они знают ответы на все насущные вопросы, стоящие перед страной.

Ex. 8. Make the sentences according to the model and translate them into Russian

Model: The judge demands/ demanded that the accused should idi/leji the truth.

I. They insist you (not diffuse) false statements. 2 He proposes the government (reduce) armed forces and armaments.

У 1 request you (convince) them to take part in the elections tomorrow.

i. The party leader recommends all members (integrate) their

forces and (come) out with a new draft programme, v We asked they (not render) those two provisions redundant:

they happened to have been useful. <>. They orjieffid we (withdraw) support for him as he never kept

his election promises. 7. The Women's Association suggests that women with children

(not recruit) as the situation in the Army remains too tense and

complicated.

n Wc command that he (reduce) to order all his former duties and obligations.

Vx. 9. Paraphrase the sentences, using 'wish' according to the model

Model: We wish you didn't diffuse these allegations.

I We were sorrv the speaker hadn't been reduced to silence. ; it would he good for the government to render this out-of-date law redundant.

* I'm sorry, I don't know if they have a redundance of manpower.

4. Unfortunately, we have to rely only on his words.Though, they don' sound very convincing.

5. I'm sorry to admit that he is not a man of strong convictions.

6. The party leader wanted to integrate its ranks on the eve of the elections.

7. The mediator stressed that it would he good if both parties to the conflict agreed to reduce tension in the region.

Ex. 10. Translate the sentences into English

1. Хотелось бы, чтобы вы не распространяли слухи о слабости этой партии. Ваше недовольство не оправдано.

2. Жаль, что не все достойные кандидаты получили поддерж­ку избирателей в своих округах.

3. Жаль, что вы не испытываете доверия к представителям от нашей партии.

4. Напрасно вы не убедили его выполнить свои обещания.

5. Жаль, что ваше предложение не означает решения пробле­мы.

6. Очень жаль, что кабинет министров не выступил против сокращений вооружений.

7. Нам хотелось бы, чтобы в его программе были новые под­ходы к решению назревших проблем.

8. Они сожалели, что не привели документы в порядок до от­крытия съезда партии.

Ex. 11. Translate the sentences into English, using the Absolute Participle construction

1. Иногда проводят различие между фракциями и движения­ми, при этом последние являются свободными и менее формальными группами, объединенными лишь какой-то одной общей позицией или идеологией.

2. Монополистические партии неизбежно (invariably) создают глубокое взаимодействие с государственной машиной. Это позволяет классифицировать такие государства как одно­партийные, при этом их механизм рассматривается как. слившийся (fused) партийно-государственный аппарат.

3. При двухпартийной системе власть поочередно переходит от одной партии к другой (alternates between these two parties); обе партии «избираемые», при этом _д) оппозиция выступает в качестве правительства, «ждущего своего выхо» да на сцену» (in the wings).

4. Италию обычно приводят в качестве классического примера нестабильности коалиционного правительства, копта пост­военные правительства остаются (to last) у власти в среднем не больше десяти месяцев.

Даже в многопартийных системах не все интересы озвучи­ваются, и/при этом наиболее уязвимыми оказываются ин­тересы малых групп, которые относительно бедны и плохо организованны.

Text 2: Party systems PRE-READING activity:

* Learn the topical vocabulary and word combinations. VOCABULARY.

I to structure v — строить, организовать; a structure n — структура, строй, организация; phr - a structure of society — строй общества, social structure — социальный строй, structuralism n — структурализм, structuralist n — структура­лист; structural a — структурный.

.' to compose v — составлять, сочинять (стихи, музыку), ком­поновать; успокаивать, phr - to compose oneself — успокаи­ваться; composition n — произведение, композиция, состав­ление, склад ума; composed а — спокойный, сдержанный, composite а — сложный, составной.

i to occur v — случаться, происходить, приходить на ум, phi - It occurred to me ~ мне пришло в голову; occurrence ii - случай, происшествие, phr — an everyday occurrence -обычное явление, to be of common occurrence - быть обыч­ным явлением.

н to contradict v — противоречить, опровергать; contradiction

u - противоречие, опровержение, contradictor n — оппо­нент, противник; contradictory a — противоречивый, проти­воречащий.

to respond v — отвечать, удовлетворять (требованиям, — to); отплатить (чем-либо — with), response n — ответ, phr — in response to sth. — в ответ на, отклик, phr - popular response — отклики общественности, responsibility n — от­ветственность, phr — on one's own responsibility - на свою ответственность; responsible a - ответственный (перед — to,

ы - for).

6. to legislate v - издавать законы, legislation n - законода­тельство, phr — labour legislation — трудовое законодательст­во; legislative a — законодательный, legislator n — законода­тель, legislature n — законодательная власть/палата.

7. to emphasize v — выделять, придавать особое значение; emphasis n - ударение, акцент, phr - to put special emphasis on sth — придать особое значение; emphatic a - вырази­тельный, эмфатический; emphatically adv - многозначи­тельно, выразительно.

8. to diversify v - разнообразить, диверсифицировать; diversity n - разнообразие; diverse a — разнообразный.

9. to adjust v - приспосабливать, устраивать; adjustment n — приспособление; adjustable a - регулируемый, adjusting a -регулирующий.