Text 1: theories of representation

There is no single, agreed theory of representation. Rather, there «if a number of competing theories, each of which is based on (uiiicular ideological and political assumptions.

A. Trustee model

A trustee is a person who is vested with formal responsibility for iinoiher's property or affairs.

For Burke⁵, the essence of representation was to serve one's constituents by the exercise of 'mature judgment' and 'enlightened rcnst'ience'. This view had strongly elitist implications, since it messes that, once elected, representatives should think for themselves «mi exercise independent judgement on the grounds that the mass of jN-uple do not know their own best interests.

I his Burkian notion of representation has attracted severe tiiiuism, however. For instance, it appears to have clearly anti-uVtiitieratic implications. If politicians should think for themselves K-i .uise the public is ignorant, poorly educated or deluded, then iiiu-ly it is a mistake to allow the public to elect their representatives tu i lie first place. Secondly, whereas education may certainly be of *.ilue in aiding the understanding of intricate political and economic problems, it is far less clear that it helps politicians to make correct moral judgements about the interests of others. There is little evidence to support the belief that education breeds altruism and gives people a broader sense of social responsibility. Finally, there is fear traditionally expressed by radical democrats that, if politicians are allowed to exercise their own judgement, they will simply use that latitude to pursue their own selfish interests. In this way, representation could simply become a substitute for democracy.

B. Delegate model

A delegate is a person who is chosen to act for another on the basis of clear guidance or instructions. In other words, a delegate is expected to act as a conduit conveying the views of others, while having little or no capacity to exercise his or her own judgement or preferences. Those who favour this model of representation as delegation usually support mechanisms that ensure that politicians are bound as closely as possible to the views of the represented. In addition, radical democrats have advocated the use of initiatives and the right of recall as means of giving the public more control over politicians. Although delegation stops short of direct democracy, its supporters nevertheless usually favour the use of referendums to supplement the representative process.

It thus comes as close as is possible in representative government to realising the ideal of popular sovereignty.

Its disadvantages are nevertheless also clear. In the first place, in ensuring that representatives are bound to the interests of their constituents, it tends to breed narrowness and foster conflict. A second drawback is that, because professional politicians are not trusted to exercise their own judgement, delegation limits tlie scope for leadership and statesmanship. Politicians are not able to mobilise the people by providing vision and inspiration.

C. Mandate model

This is based on the idea that, in winning an election, a party gains a popular mandate that authorises it to carry out whatever, policies or programmes it outlined during the election campaign. As it is the party, rather than individual politicians, that is the agency of representation, the mandate model provides a clear justification for party unity and party discipline. In effect, politicians serve their constituents not by thinking for themselves or acting as a channel to convey their views, but by remaining loyal to their party and its policies.

The doctrine has also stimulated fierce criticism. First, it is based mi a highly questionable model of voting behaviour, insofar as it suggests that voters select parties on the grounds of policies and issues. Voters are not always the rational and well infonned creatures iIkii ihis model suggests. They can be influenced by a range of 'manorial' factors, such as the personalities of leaders, the images of lorries, habitual allegiances and social conditioning. Secondly, voters ,ue likely to be attracted by certain manifesto commitments, but be less interested in, or opposed to, others. A vote for a party cannot 11ierefore be taken to be an endorsement of its entire manifesto or of .my single election promise. Thirdly, the doctrine imposes a iti;iiijacket, for it leaves no scope to adjust policies in the light of i lunging circumstances.

D. Resemblance model

The final theory of representation is based less on the manner in which representatives are selected than on whether they typify or ti'semble the group they claim to represent. This notion is embodied in the idea of a 'representative cross-section', as used by market H'searchers and opinion pollsters. By this standard, a representative fiivcmment would constitute a microcosm of the larger society, i nuiaining members drawn from all groups and sections in society (in ifims of social class, gender, religion, ethnicity, age and so on), and ui numbers that are proportional to the size of the groups in society ,n large.

The resemblance model suggests that only people who come from .1 particular group, and have shared the experiences of that group, can lully identify with its interests. On the other hand, the idea that u-pil'sentatives should resemble the represented undoubtedly causes a iniiiibci of difficulties.

One of these is that this model portrays representation in exclusive >>i narrow terms, believing that only a woman can represent women, >>nly a black person can represent other black people, and so on. If all H-piesentatives simply advance the interests of the groups from which iln'v come, the result would be social division and conflict, with no .'in- being able to defend the common good or advance a broader public interest. Moreover, a government that is a microcosm of ..'i K-ty would reflect that society's weaknesses as well as its strengths. W|ut would be the advantage, for example, of government resembling ■ii'ii'iy if the majority of the population are apathetic, ill infonned mil poorly educated? Finally, in the name of representation, political i'.iiiies may be forced to select quotas of female and minority ■ .iruiidates, constituencies may be set aside for candidates from particular backgrounds, or, more dramatically, the electorate might have to be classified on the basis of class, race, gender and so on, and only be allowed to vote for candidates from their own group.

AFTER-READING activity

♦ Read the text in more depth to do the 'After-reading exercises'.

Ex. 1. Comprehension questions

A.

1. What is a trustee model of representation based on?

1. Burke's view of this representation had strongly elitist implications, didn't it?

2. What is its essence?

3. What are its drawbacks?

4. What role does education play in this model?

5. Are the fears that politicians, given any latitude, would pursue their own interests justified?

B.

7. What is a delegate model of representation based on?

8. Who favours this model and why?

9. What are its disadvantages?

C.

10. What is a mandate model of representation based on?

11. Who or what is the agency of representation here?

12. Why has it stimulated fierce criticism?

D.

13. What is a resemblance model of representation based on?

14. What does a 'representative cross-section' mean?

15. Why does the idea that representatives should resemble the represented cause a number of difficulties?

Ex. 2. Terminology.

A. Learn the terminology:

Manifesto — манифест (программа) партии

Mandate — мандат

Initiative - инициатива (право на инициативу) Recall — отзыв (право на отзыв депутата) l'opular sovereignty - народный суверенитет

В. Match the notions with the definitions:

• ... is a process whereby the electorate can call unsatisfactory public officials to account and ultimately remove them.

• is the principle that there is no higher authority than the

will of the people (the basis of the classical concept of democracy).

• ... is a type of referendum through which the public is able to raise legislative proposals.

• The idea of a popular ... arises from the claim on behalf of a winning party that its manifesto promises have been endorsed, giving it authority to translate these into a programme of government.

• ... is a document outlining (in more or less detail) the policies or programme a party proposes to pursue if elected to power.

• Work with the dictionary and consult the text to do ex. 3, 4

Ex. 3. Translate from English into Russian

... there are a number of competing theories; the exercise of 'mature judgment' and 'enlightened conscience'; this view had \irongly elitist implications; a clear guidance or instmctions; a inuduit conveying the views of others; to exercise one's own uulyement or preferences; politicians are bound as closely as possible in the views of the represented; delegation stops short of direct democracy; to provide vision and inspiration; to outline policies or pingrammes; habitual allegiances and social conditioning; 'iepresentative cross-section'; to constitute a microcosm of the larger MHiety; in terms of social class, gender, religion, ethnicity, age; . .mstituencies may be set aside for candidates from particular backgrounds.

Гл. 4. Translate from Russian into English

Теории основываются на идеологических и политических предположениях (посылках); возложить ответственность; послу-+.И[ь основанием для суровой критики; массы невежественны, ■ \ юхо образованны и находятся в заблуждении; сложные поли­

¹ James Madison (1751-1836) - fourth president (1809-1817) of the i sv

' John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) - British economist and philosopher.

тические и экономические проблемы; сделать правильные мо­ральные выводы; воспользоваться свободой действия; преследо­вать свои собственные корыстные цели; подмена демократии; право отозвать (депутата); верховная власть народа (суверени­тет); способствовать возникновению конфликта; ограничить возможности для лидерства; рациональные и хорошо информи­рованные избиратели; ряд нерациональных факторов; представ­лять микрокосм общества; явиться причиной целого ряда про­блем; безразличный; устанавливать квоту.

Ex. 5. Fill in the blanks in column 'A' with the topical vocabulary units from column 'B\ making all necessary changes

	A.		B.
1.	One of the main UN	a.	constituents, polling
	bodies is ...		stations
2.	On election day all... are	b.	trust
	requested to come to their
	... and vote for their
	candidates.
3.	The back side of a US	c.	the Trusteeship Counci
	dollar coin says «In God
	we ...».
4.	The main witness was ...	d.	to adjust
5.	Both delegates came out	e.	to endorse
	with quite ... suggestions.
6.	The UN Security Council	f.	identical
	shall ... all conflicts in a
	peaceful way.		to call in evidence
7.	The manifesto ... by a	8-
	two/thirds majority of all
	those present.		evidence, to breed
8.	There is little ... to support	h.
	the belief that education ...
	altruism and gives people
	a broader sense of social
	responsibility.
9.	He used to buy the ... to	i.	to cause
	that weekly magazine once
	a week.
10.	... is a person who is	j-	advantage
	vested with formal
	responsibility for another's
	property and affairs.

11. The ... of conducting k. a trustee elections at the weekend is

that most people are free to participate in voting.

12. What ... the appearance of 1. a supplement a number of competing

theories of representation?

Kx. 6. Translate the Conditional sentences into Russian

I. This notion is embodied in the idea that a representative government would constitute a microcosm of the larger society. If all representatives simply advance the interests of the groups from which they come, the result would be social division and conflict.

V A government that is a microcosm of society would reflect that

society's weakness as well as its strength. ■1 What would the advantage of government resembling society _

if the majority of the population are apathetic?

The electorate would/might be classified on the basis of class,

race, gender and so on. i> There is fear, that representation would/cjanld simply become a

substitute for democracy.

'If men were angels,'Madison^! famously wrote 'no government would be necessary', s In the Islamic world with an increasing role of theocratic politics, were elections to be held tomorrow, the resulting regimes would almost certainly b_Ј more illiberal than the ones now in place.

For Mill², representative government (the ideal type of a perfect government) is ill suited to 'barbarous' or 'backward' people, who are likely to need some form of monarchical or (preferably) external rule to bring them toward the state of civilization in which they might/would become fit for representative government.

l<) In more typical cases of democratic transition, elections are often held under extraordinarily difficult circumstances and at limes that would not have been chosen if democracy-building were the only goal. Even if such countries today are merely illiberal democracies, they are manifestly much better off than if i hey were still racked by civil war.

11. It is difficult to see how dispensing with elections would lead toward 'constitutional liberalism', or how such unaccountable rule would be preferable to 'illiberal democracy'.

12. Demagogues can use electoral campaigns to appeal to voters' worst instincts, including ethnic or religious intolerance (although the number of new democracies in which candidates have succeeded on the basis of such appeals is far fewer than might have been expected).

13. Popular sentiment in seventeenth-century England, if there had been a way of measuring it, might well have approved of a monarchical political system.

14. If politicians should think for themselves (should politicians think for themselves) because the public is ignorant, poorly educated or deluded then surely it is a mistake to allow the public to elect their representatives in the first place.

Ex. 7. Make up Conditional sentences according to the model

Model: He, vote for this candidate (reasonable).

It would be reasonable of him to vote for this candidate.

1. She, go into details of the matter now (unwise).

2. They, raise the problem at the next conference (the right thing to do).

3. He, trust the constituents (wise).

4. She, denote these notions (thoughtless) as identical. They do not have anything in common.

5. The delegates, endorse the draft resolution (reasonable).

6. You, trust this politician (senseless). He has already let you down.

7. He, evidence at the trial (risky). He might be under suspicion himself.

8. They, to adjust the conflict (sensible).

Ex. 8. Open the brackets, using Perfect forms in the Conditional sentences, translate them into Russian

1. The power of the liberal idea would seem much less impressive if it (not to infect) the largest and oldest culture in Asia, China.

2. They were unaware of the fact that freedom sometimes yields separatism. They (introduce) amendments to the constitution to prevent that.

3. You should have warned us that the discussion on the theories of representation would be postponed. We (not invite our colleagues).

4. The MPs should not have endorsed the amendments at once. There (be another detailed discussion in the Committee).

5. I wish I knew the magazine with its supplement was on sale. I (buy it).

f>, We wish we knew their refusal to support the manifesto was caused by the lack of information. We (provide them with it).

7. Why didn't he give his evidence at the trial? It (change the verdict) of the jury.

Ex. 9. Change the sentences according to the model

Model: He came second in the elections. Some more votes of the constituents and he (to win in the first round).

Some more votes of the constituents and he would/might have won in the first round.

I. They were late for the meeting. Another minute and it (to cancel).

2 We failed to talk him into adjusting his suggestions to ours.

Another fact or argument and he (to agree).

We kept him from identifying himself. Another moment and he

(to recognize and take to prison). 4. Some more direct evidence and the accused (to find guilty and

sentence to death). ^ Some more arguments on behalf of the chaiman and we (to

lake his words on trust).

Ex. 10. Translate the sentences into English

1 Вам не следовало одобрять работу этих членов Комитета, ны могли бы оказаться в затруднительном положении.

.' Было бы неплохо разработать единую теорию представи-тел ьства.

i Вопросы людей, проводящих опросы общественного мне­ния, озадачили бы любого.

I Ваше замечание не явилось бы причиной беспокойства по поводу организации выборов, если бы оно было сделано во время.

Если бы соглашение было подписано на том основании, что оно актуально, его положения уже выполнялись бы. *' Какой исход выборов вы бы предсказали, если бы до по­следнего момента не знали результатов опроса обществен­ного мнения?

1 ели бы мы были плохо информированы о его позиции, нам не удалось бы помешать ему сделать неверный шаг.

8. Вам бы следовало быстрее приспособиться к новым усло­виям конкуренции, вы бы уже достигли взаимопонимания со своими партнерами.

Ex. 11. Translate into Russian, paying attention to different meaning of 'While' in the sentences

1. While few modem democratic theorists are prepared to reduce democracy simply to competitive elections, most nevertheless understand democratic government in terms of the rules and mechanisms that guide the conduct of elections.

2. Political discontent and opposition can be neutralised by elections that channel them in a constitutional direction, and allow governments come and go while the regime itself survives.

3. Both candidates, while making nods to the more extreme elements in their parties, ran centrist campaigns.

4. The Conservatives in the UK were able to implement a programme of market- oriented reforms in 1990s while never gaining more than 43 per cent of support in elections.

5. Some see voting as a retrospective comment on the party in power and how its performance has influenced citizens' choice, while others portray voters as active in the sense that they behave like consumers expressing a choice amongst the available policy options.

6. Television operates as a constant recorder and molder of facts, while the opinion polls operate as constant recorders and molders of people's attitudes.

7. Corporatism advantages groups that are accorded privileged access to government. 'Insider' groups therefore possess a political voice, while 'outsiders' are denied one.

8. The simple fact that, while human needs and desires are infinite,. the resources available to satisfy them are always limited, politics can therefor be seen as the means through which this" struggle is conducted.

9. While pluralism may fall a long way short of the ordeal of popular self-government, its supporters nevertheless argue that it ensures a sufficient level of accountability and popular, responsiveness for it to be regarded as democratic.

10. While a choice between just two programmes of government was perhaps sufficient in an era of partisan alignment and class solidarity, it has become quite inadequate in a period of great individualism and social diversity.

11. While scholars debate the merits of presidential versus parliamentary forms of government, usurpation can occur under

either, absent well-developed alternative centers of power such as strong legislature, courts, political parties, regional governments, and independent universities and media.

12. While anarchy has got its dangers, the greatest threats to human liberty and happiness in the last century were caused not by disorder but by brutally strong, centralised states, like Nazi Germany, Maoist China, etc.

13. While many new electoral democracies fall short of liberalism, on the whole, countries that hold elections are overwhelmingly more liberal than those that do not.

14. While it is impossible to rule out the sudden appearance of new ideologies or previously unrecognised contradictions in liberal societies, then, the present world seems to confirm that the fundamental principles of socio-political organisation have not advanced terribly far since 1806.

Kx. 12. Translate into Russian sentences with the Absolute Participle construction

1 If all representatives simply advance the interests of the groups they come from, the result would be social division and conflict, with no one being able to defend the common good or advance a broader public interest.

.'. Party systems have been seen to reflect the class system, with the middle classes providing the electoral base for right-wing parties, and the working classes providing the electoral base for left-wing parties.

' A parochial political culture is marked by the absence of a sense of citizenship, with people identifying with their locality rather than the nation, and having neither the desire nor the ability to participate in politics.

1 Welfare was portrayed as largely a matter of individual responsibility, individuals being encouraged to provide for themselves by hard work, savings, private pensions, medical insurance and so on.

Over the past twenty years the process of primaries has been relentlessly abbreviated, with the Republicans tripling the percentage of delegates chosen by the second week of March, and the Democrats quadrupling it. '> With peace-keeping, or rather peace-enforcement, in disrepute, emphasis has switched to the UN' less appealing economic and social services.

Ex. 13. Paraphrase the sentences to use the Complex Subject

1. It is likely that they will be attracted by certain manifesto commitments.

2. It is thought that majoritarian systems are at their weakest when they are evaluated in terms of their representative functions,

3. It seems that proportional electoral systems are manifestly more representative.

4. This is more likely to be achieved by coalition governments.

5. It is believed that individual electors decide their party preference on the basis of personal interest.

6. It is often alleged that government attempt to create pre­election booms in the hope of improving their chances of gaining reelection.

7. It is expected that this party will win the Parliament elections.

8. If it is required that democratic government should be everywhere in principle, what course can a good liberal democrat follow where it appears unable to work in practice? This problem largely accounts for the alternating cycles of euphoria and despair about the prospects for the spread of liberal democracy.

9. It is expected that elected representatives are superior to the average citizen. In this light, it seems that representative or electoral democracy, besides largely eliminating the people from direct participation in self-government, also constitutes an aristocratic deviation from political equality.

Ex. 14. Translate into Russian paying attention to the Infinitive Complex

1. For election to serve representative purposes they must be competitive.

2. It was thought that voting held the key to disclosing all the mysteries of the political system, perhaps allowing for laws of mass political psychology to be developed.

3. Conservative politicians regularly call for these values to be 'strengthened' or 'defended¹, believing that they are the key to social cohesion and political stability.

4. It is difficult for a system of personal rule to outlive its founder.

5. A primary election must always be followed by a general election for voters to decide which party will have its candidates¹ occupy the offices of government.

6. This phenomenon is for politicians to explain.

7. The tendency for a democratic government to believe it has absolute sovereignty (that is, power) can result in the

centralisation of authority, often by extraconstitutional means

and with grim results, s. In a recent speech explaining what it takes for capitalism to

flourish, the Federal Reserve chairman concluded that, 'The

guiding mechanism of a free market economy ... is a bill of

rights, enforced by an impartial judiciary'. ^s) There is every reason for Western nations to do all they can to

assist new democracies in improving their electoral democracies

and turning them into liberal democracies. ID. The most prominent feature of a dominant-party system is the

tendency for the political focus to shift from competition

between parties to factional conflict within the dominant party

itself.

11 In part, of course, the substitution of representative government for direct democracy was justified by the larger size of modern states, which made it impractical for the whole people to assemble.

Text 2: Electoral systems PRE-READING activity:

• Learn the topical vocabulary and word combinations. VOCABULARY:

I to convert v — превращать, phr — to convert ideas into a theory — превратить мысли в теорию; убедить в чем-либо (someone to sth); phr to convert pounds into francs - перево-чить/конвертировать валюту (фунты во франки); принять перу (рел,); phr - to convert to Buddhism — перейти в буд­дизм; convertibility n — обратимость, конвертируемость; convertible а - обратимый, конвертируемый, phr — convertible currency — конвертируемая валюта; conversion n - превращение, переход.

to evaluate v — оценивать, phr — to evaluate the damage at

$50 — оценить ущерб в 50 долларов; evaluation n - оценка, i to distort v — искажать, извращать, phr — to distort facts —

искажать факты; distortion n — искажение, извращение, ■t to pressurise v - оказывать давление, phr — to pressurise sb

into doing sth — заставить кого-л сделать что-л; pressure n — давление, воздействие; phr — to bring pressure to bear on sb - принуждать кого-л; to put pressure on sb — оказать дав­ление на кого-л; to be under sb's pressure — находиться под чьим-л влиянием.

5. to represent v — представлять; phr — to represent sb at a place — представлять кого-л где-л; representation n — пред­ставление, представительство, proportional representation -пропорциональное представительство; representative n — представитель, phr — House of Representatives — Палата представителей; a — представительный, показательный, ти­пичный; phr — a representative government — представитель­ское (репрезентативное) правительство.

6. to defend v — защищать, phr — to defend one's ideas — от­стаивать свои идеи; defence n — защита, phr — in defence of sb — в защиту кого-л, defence industry - оборонная про­мышленность; defendant n — ответчик, подсудимый; defender n — защитник; defencelessness n — беззащитность; defenceless a — беззащитный.

7. to estimate v - оценивать, estimation n - оценка, суждение; estimate n — оценка; phr — to form an estimate of sth — со­ставить представление о чем-л.

WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS

to have an impact on sb оказать влияние на кого-л

criterion (sing) критерий

criteria (pi) критерии

to stem from something происходить/проистекать от ч-л

to thrash sth out обстоятельно обсудить что-л, ра-

зобрать (вопрос) to deliver on election promises выполнять предвыборные обеща­ния

in greater abundance в большем количестве

SKIM reading: Work in pairs: look through the text and bring out the topical sentences conveying the main ideas of the text.