Text 2: democracy in practice: rival views

Although there continues to be controversy about which is the most desirable form of democracy, much of contemporary debate revolves around how democracy works in practice. There is broad, even worldwide, acceptance of a particular model of democracy, generally termed liberal democracy.

Nevertheless, there is a considerable amount of disagreement about the meaning and significance of liberal democracy. In short, this form of democracy is interpreted in different ways by different theorists. The most important of these interpretations are advanced by: pluralism, elitism, corporatism, the New Right and Marxism.

A. Pluralist view recognises both the existence of diversity or multiplicity in society, and the fact that such multiplicity is desirable. The key feature of such a system of pluralist democracy is that competition between parties at election time, and the ability of interest or pressure groups to articulate their views freely, establishes a reliable link between the government and the governed, and creates a channel of communication between the two. While this may fall a long way short of the ideal of popular self-government, its supporters nevertheless argue that it ensures a sufficient level of accountability and popular responsiveness for it to be regarded as democratic.

However, the relationship between pluralism and democracy may not be a secure one. In other words, the system of rule by multiple minorities may simply have been a device to prevent the majority (the propertyless masses) from exercising political power. A further problem is the danger of what has been called 'pluralist stagnation*. This occurs as organised groups and economic interests become so powerful that they create a log jam, resulting in the problem of government 'overload'. In such circumstances, a pluralist system may simply become ungovernable. Finally, there is a problem, notably that the unequal ownership of economic resources tends to concentrate political power in the hands of the few and deprive it from the many.

B. Elitist view developed as a critique of egalitarian ideas such as democracy and socialism.

Whereas classical elitists strove to prove that democracy was always a myth, modern elitist theorists have tended to highlight how far particular political systems fall short of the democratic ideal.

Certain elite theorists have nevertheless argued that a measure of democratic accountability is consistent with elite rule. Whereas the power-elite model portrays the elite as a cohesive body, bound together by common or overlapping interests, competitive elitism (sometimes called democratic elitism) highlights the significance of elite rivalry. In other words, the elite, consisting of the leading figures from a number of competing groups and interests, is fractured. The electorate can decide which elite rules, but cannot change the fact that power is always exercised by an elite.

To the extent, the model is accurate, its virtue is that it allows considerable scope for political leadership by placing decision-making in the hands of the best-informed, most-skilled, and most politically committed members of society. On the other hand, although competition for power undoubtedly creates a measure of accountability, competitive elitism must at best be considered a weak form of democracy. Not only can one elite only be removed by replacing it with another, but the role allotted to the general public (that of deciding every few years which elite will rule on its behalf) is likely to engender apathy, lack of interest, and even alienation.

C. Corporatist view: The origins of corporatism date back to the attempt in fascist Italy to construct a so-called 'corporate state' by integrating both managers and workers into the processes of government. In the form of neocorporatism, or liberal corporatism, this gave rise to the spectre of 'tripartite government', in which government is conducted through organisations which allow state officials, employers' groups and unions to deal directly with one another.

Most commentators, however, see corporatism as a threat to democracy. In the first place, corporatism only advantages groups that are accorded privileged access to government. 'Insider' groups iherefore possess a political voice, while outsider groups are denied one. Secondly, corporatism can work to the benefit of the state rather than major economic interests, in that the peak associations that the government chooses to deal with can be used to exert discipline over their members and to filter out radical demands. Finally, corporatism threatens to subvert the processes of electoral or parliamentary democracy. Policy is made through negotiations between government officials and leaders of powerful economic interests rather than through the deliberations of a representative assembly.

D. New Right view: The emergence of the New Right from the 1970s onwards has generated a very particular critique of democratic politics. This has focused upon the danger of what has been called 'democratic overload': the paralysis of a political system that is subject to unrestrained group and electoral pressures. One aspect of this critique has highlighted the unsavoury face of corporatism. New Right theorists are keen advocates of the free market, believing that economies work best when left alone by government.

Government 'overload' can also be seen to be a consequence of the electoral process. Both voters and politicians are held to blame here. Voters are attracted by promises of higher public spending. Politicians, consumed by the desire to win power, attempt to outbid one another by making ever more generous spending pledges to the electorate. The economic consequences of unrestrained democracy are high levels of inflation fuelled by public borrowing, and a tax burden that destroys enterprise and undermines growth.

The New Right theorists therefore tend to see democracy in strictly protective terms, regarding it essentially as a defence against arbitrary government rather than a means of bringing about social transformation.

E, The Marxist view of democratic politics is rooted in class analysis. In this view, political power cannot be understood narrowly in terms of electoral rights, or in terms of the ability of groups to articulate their interests by lobbying and campaigning. Rather, at a deeper level, political power reflects the distribution of economic power and, in particular, the unequal ownership of productive wealth. The Marxist critique of liberal democracy thus focuses upon the inherent tension between democracy and capitalism, that is, between the political equality which liberal democracy proclaims and the social inequality that a capitalist economy inevitably generates. Liberal democracies are thus seen as 'capitalist' or 'bourgeois' democracies that are manipulated and controlled by the entrenched power of a ruling class.

♦ Discuss/check your considerations with the rest of the class.

AFTER-READING activity

♦ Read the text in more depth to do the 'After-reading

exersices*

Ex. 1. Comprehension questions: A.

1. What is the key feature of pluralistic democracy? What does it recognise?

2. The relationship between pluralism and democracy may not be a secure one, may it?

B.

3. What is the origin of elitism?

4. What is the difference between classical elitists and modern ones; the power-elite model and competitive elitism?

5. What are the strong and the weak points of competitive (democratic) elitism?

C.

6. What are the roots of corporatism?

7. Why do most commentators see corporatism as a threat to democracy?

D.

8. Why have New Right theorists chosen 'democratic overload' a focus of their critique?

9. Why are both voters and politicians held to blame for government 'overload'?

10. What does the Marxist critique of liberal democracy amount to?

Ex. 2. Terminology/ Concepts

A. Learn the terminology: neocorporatism — неокорпоратизм pluralism — плюрализм

peak associations - представительские ассоциации (выражаю­щие пик интересов отдельных групп) natural rights - естественные права (от рождения) bicameralism - двухпалатность (в парламенте) elite/elitism — элита/элитизм

номические ресурсы; пытаться доказать что-либо; подчеркнуть важность; осуществлять власть; вызвать апатию и отчуждение; способствовать росту чего-либо; угроза демократии; отказать кому-либо в праве голоса; подорвать процесс демократии; по­дорвать рост; лоббировать кого-либо.

Ex. 5. Fill in the gaps in column 'A' with the topical vocabulary units from column 'B', making all necessary changes

В. Match the given above notions with the definitions:

In its broader sense,

• ... is a belief in, or a commitment to, diversity or multiplicity (the existence of many things). As a descriptive term, it may be used to denote the existence of party competition.

• ... is the fragmentation of legislative power, established through the existence of two (co-equal) chambers in the assembly.

• The term ... originally meant, and still can mean, the highest, the best, or the excellent. Used in a neutral or empirical sense, it refers to a minority in whose hands power, wealth, or privilege is concentrated, justifiably or otherwise.

• ... is a tendency found in western polyarchies for organised interests to be granted privileged and institutionalised access to policy formulation.

■ ... is a group recognised by government as representing the general or collective interests of businesses or workers.

• God-given ... are the ones that are fundamental to human beings and are therefore inalienable (they cannot be taken away).

• Work with the dictionary and consult the text to do exer­cises 3, 4

Ex. 3. Translate from English into Russian

Much of contemporary debate revolves around how democracy works in practice; diversity or multiplicity in society; a sufficient level of accountability and popular responsiveness; 'pluralist stagnation'; to create a log jam; classical elitists; a cohesive body, bound together by common or overlapping interests; the most politically committed members of society; the role allotted to the general public; to be accorded privileged access to government; to exert discipline over members; to be subject to public scrutiny; the unsavoury face of corporatism; both voters and politicians are held to blame; unrestrained democracy; arbitrary government; entrenched power of a ruling class.

Ex. 4. Translate from Russian into English

Широкое признание; во время выборов; установить надеж­ную связь между правителями и управляемыми; самоуправле­ние; неимущие слои населения; неравная собственность на эко-

1. Congested cities are expected to double in size and... economic and social problems.

2. The programme was too much time...

3. The supply of ... goods to far away regions... irregularly.

4. ... of such high-technological equipment requires great expenses.

5. Constitutional liberalism ... the limitation of power, democracy ... its accumulation and use.

6. More narrowly pluralism ... to a theory of the distribution of political power.

7. The more radical notion of universal suffrage ... from the late 18^th century onwards by utilitarian theorists.

8. There continues to be ... about the term «pluralisme as there are still different approaches to the problem.

9. None of organized economic interests ... of having access to the policy process.

10. ... pluralism may be used to denote the existence of

B.

a. consuming

b. to focus upon (2)

c. Maintenance

d. consumer, to maintain

e. to generate

f. to advance

g. to correspond

h. In short, to generate

i. to maintain, dominating

j. controversy

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party competition, that... political pluralism.

k. to be deprived

1. generation, issues

m. critique, deliberately

n. to make pledges, electorate, to focus

o. to fall short of sth

11. Pluralism ... that power is widely and evenly dispersed in society, rather than concentrated in the hands of a ... elite or a ruling class.

12. Coming out with his sharp ... of the recent initiatives of his opponent the speaker ... omitted several details which made his presentation biased.

13. The interest of the rising ... in politics is growing. The young articulate their views on most ... on the political agenda today.

14. Over the last decades, elected governments claiming to represent the people have tended ... the proclaimed target.

15. A candidate running for a new post and ... to the people, who will vote for him (his ...) must ... his future activity on these commitments and try to deliver.

Ex. 6. Use the verbs in brackets in the Passive Voice and translate the sentences into Russian

1. Liberal democracy is an indirect and representative form of democracy in that political office (to gain) through success in regular elections that (to conduct) on the basis of formal political equality.

2. Liberal democracy (to base) on competition and electoral choice. These (to achieve) through political pluralism, tolerance of a wide range of contending beliefs, and the existence of conflicting social philosophies and rival political movements and parties.

i. in liberal democracy, there is a clear distinction between the state and civil society. This distinction (to maintain) through the existence of autonomous groups and interests, and the market or capitalist organisation of economic life.

Ex. 7. Fill in the blanks with 'oat' or 'without', using either Participle I or the Gerund

I. ... knowing the facts, he could not account for the problem.

?.. The speaker asserted his point of view ... taking into account the

arguments of his rivals, i. You can find yourself in trouble ., having guarantees from the

company.

4. The chairman asserted the fact calmly ... making a fuss about it.

5. Tracing back the history of the political crisis he suddenly kept silent ... wishing to draw attention to some facts.

fi. ... being promoted yet he committed himself to work harder.

1. The orator felt discouraged ... being welcomed by the audience.

H. The MP had to roll back to the matter again ... being hailed as he had expected, but he ultimately succeeded in making his point clear ... drawing too much critisism from the audience.

Ex. 8. Study the cases of inversion and translate the sentences into Russian

I Never had he made pledges to the public and ignored them. .'. Nowhere will vou come across such a variety of consumer goods.

' Not until the troops advanced did we believe in our victory. 1 Rarely does a person agree to be deprived of some basic rights deliberately.

v Hardly had he mentioned he was not guilty when the majority

of the audience supported him. (i. Not only does this view clearly contradict any form of

majoritarianism, hut it dramatically restricts the application of

democratic principles. 7. Not only can one elite he removed by being replaced with

another, but the role of the general public is likely to engender

lack of interest, apathy, and even alienation, s No sooner had he started controverting the issue than the

chairman focused his attention on its importance. ⁽>. Only when such principles are ignored can oppression and

exploitation flourish. ID. In no way can this government deny its guilt. i i On no account will I compromise my ideals.

12. So closely is authority linked, to a specific individual, thai it is difficult for a system of personal rule to outlive its founding figure.

13. It was they who generated the audience's positive response.

Ex. 9. Rewrite the following sentences, inverting the subject and the predicate

1. The decision of the jury was that he would never again be deprived of basic human rights.

2. One rarely advocates the ideas, generated by others and falling short of the proclaimed aims.

3. World peace would not be secure until all nuclear weapons are eliminated.

4. Policemen are allowed to use guns in such circumstances only after several years' training.

5. 1 don't doubt the fact that the predominate factors in politics are acknowledgment of issues and search for ways of their solution.

6. This party really dominates in discussing the most urgent issues of the day.

7. They advanced their ideas and no doubt succeeded in their implementation.

8. The UN maintains peace all over the world.

Ex. 10. Use the topical vocabulary, translating words and sentences in brackets into English