Text 1: conceptions of democracy

Most conceptions of democracy are based on the principle of 'government by the people'.

Although 'the people' is now accepted as meaning virtually all adult citizens, the term can be construed in a number of different ways. The people, for instance, can be viewed as a single, cohesive body, bound together by a common or collective interest: in this sense, the people are one and indivisible. Alternatively, as division and disagreement exist within all communities, 'the people' may in practice be taken to mean 'the majority'. In this case, democracy comes to mean the strict application of the principle of majority rule in which the will of the majority or numerically strongest overrides the will of the minority. This can nevertheless mean that democracy degenerates into 'the tyranny of the majority'. Finally, the people can be thought of as a collection of free and equal individuals, each of whom has a right to make autonomous decisions. Not only does this view clearly contradict any form of majoritarianism, but it also implies that, in the final analysis, only unanimous decisions can be binding upon the demos, and so dramatically restricts the application of democratic principles.

This implies that, in effect, people govern themselves, that they participate in making the crucial decisions that structure their lives and determine the fate of their society. This participation can take a number of forms, however. In the case of direct democracy, popular participation entails direct and continuous involvement in decision­making, through devices such as rйfйrendums, mass meetings, or even interactive television. The alternative and more common form of democratic participation is the act of voting, which is the central feature of what is usually called representative democracy. When citizens vote, they do not so much make the decisions that stmcture their own lives as choose who will make those decisions on their behalf. What gives voting its democratic character, however, is that, provided that the election is competitive, it empowers the public to 'kick the rascals out', and it thus makes politicians publicly accountable.

There are also models of democracy that are built on the principle of 'government for the people', and that allows little scope for public participation of any kind, direct or indirect. The most grotesque example of this was found in the so-called totalitarian democracies which developed under fascist dictators such as Mussolini and Hitler. The democratic credentials of such regimes were based on the claim that the 'leader', and the leader alone, articulated the genuine interests of the people, thus implying that a 'true' democracy can be equated with an absolute dictatorship. In such cases, popular rule means nothing more than ritualised submission to the will of an all-powerful leader, orchestrated through rallies, marches and demonstrations. This was sometimes portrayed as plebiscitary democracy. Totalitarian democracies demonstrate the tension that can exist between 'government by the people' (or popular participation), and 'government for the people' (rule in the public interest). Advocates of representative democracy, for example, have wished to confine popular participation in politics to the act of voting, precisely because they fear that the general public lack the wisdom, education and experience to rule wisely on their own behalf.

An alternative view of democracy is often developed by, for example, socialists and radical democrats. In radical democracy, democracy is not seen as a means of laying down a framework within winch individuals can go about their own business, but rather as a general principle that is applicable to all areas of social existence. (Vople are seen as having a basic right to participate in the making of any decisions that affect their lives, with democracy simply being the collective process through which this is done. Instead of endorsing mere political democracy, socialists have therefore called for 'social democracy' or 'industrial democracy'. Feminists, similarly, have demanded the dйmocratisation of family life, understood as the right of all to participate in the making of decisions in the domestic or private sphere. From this perspective, democracy is regarded as a Iriend of liberty, not as its enemy. Only when such principles are ignored can oppression and exploitation flourish.

AFTER-READING activity

is a form of democracy that favours decentralisation and participation, the widest possible dispersal of political power.

• Read the text in more depth to do the 'After-reading' exercises

Ex. 1. Comprehension questions:

1. What are the different ways of construing the term 'the people'?

2. What is the interpretation of the principle 'government by the people*?

3. What devices guarantee popular participation in 'direct democracy'?

4. What is the key feature of 'representative democracy'?

5. What lies behind the principle 'government for the people'?

6. What gives voting its democratic character?

7. What are the grounds for the claim that 'a true democracy can be equated with absolute dictatorship?

8. How does 'radical democracy' differ from other conceptions of democracy?

9. What is the feminists' stance on the matter? Ex. 2. Terminology/ concepts:

A. Learn the terminology:

totalitarian democracy — тоталитарная демократия majoritarianism - мажоританизм political equality — политическое равенство radical democracy - радикальная демократия plebiscitary democracy — плебисцитная/плебисцитарная демократия deliberative democracy — делиберативная (совещательная) демо­кратия

B. Match the above notions with the definitions:

• ... is a form of democracy that emphasises the need for

discourse and debate to help define the public interests.

• ... is absolute dictatorship that masquerades as a democracy,

typically based on the leader's claim to a monopoly of ideological wisdom.

• ... is a theory or practice in which priority is accorded to the

will of the numerically strongest.

• ... is an equal distribution of political power and influence,

• ... is a form of democratic rule that operates through

unmediated link between the rulers and the ruled.

♦ Work with the dictionary and consult the text to do ex. 3, 4

Ex. 3. Translate from English into Russian:

Popular participation entails direct and continuous involvement; to kick the rascals out; plebiscitary democracy; to make politicians publicly accountable; ritualised submission, orchestrated through marches and demonstrations; to lay down a framework.

Ex. 4. Translate from Russian into English:

Средства; диалоговое (интерактивное) телевидение; политики несут ответственность; не предоставлять больших возможностей для участия; истинные интересы народа; приравнять что-либо к чему-либо; массовые митинги; сторонники демократии; призы­вать к чему-либо.

Ex. 5. Fill in the gaps in column 'A' with the topical vocabulary units from column 'B\ making all necessary changes

a. credentials

b. unmediated, participation

c. to participate

A. B.

d.

provided, competitive

e. to be determined

to lack, to empower

1. People are seen as having a basic right... in the making of any decisions that affect their lives.

2. Direct democracy is based on the direct... and continuous ... of citizens in the tasks of government.

3. The models of democracy ... by the principles of ^government 'for' or 'by' the people*.

4. The ... of totalitarian democracies were based on the claim that «the leader» articulated the interests of the people.

5. What gives voting its democratic character is that, ... that the election is it empowers the public to 'kick the rascals out'.

6. If democratic principles ... in the interests of the majority of people, they can easily ... by them.

7. Under representative democracy g. to lay down, to the public ... power, they only endorse select those who will rule on their

behalf and ... them to structure the future of their lives.

8. Direct democracy was achieved in h. to confine Athens by mass ... in solution of

disputes.

9. In Greek city-states political i participation participation was ... to male

citizens over the age of 20. 10. Universal suffrage was not j. involvement

established in the UK until 1928, since then women have no longer been deprived of their... in politics.

Ex. 6. Paraphrase the underlined parts, using the topical vocabulary

1. We can formulate the term political equality as an eqffSl distribution of political power and influence.

2. Political equality can he thought of as the core principle of democracy if it ensures that all voices are equally loud.

3. Political equality also provides people with social equality.

4. Poor people were far from exercising most democratic rights, they were deprived of universal suffrage.

5. In Greek city-states political participation was restricted to a tiny proportion of the population.

6. In the USA universal suffrage was not achieved until the early 1960s, when African-American people in many Southern states were granted rights to vote.

7. In Switzerland universal suffrage was established in 1971 when women were eventually enfranchised.

8. People tested insane and imprisoned criminals are to subject to electoral restrictions.

Ex. 7. Translate into Russian, paying special attention to the translation of the GERUND:

1. In their view, political power cannot be understood in terms of the ability to articulate their interests by lobbying and campaigning.

2. The direct democracy enables the public to express their own views and interests without having to rely on self-serving politicians.

3. The representative democracy relieves ordinary citizens of the burden of decision-making, thus making possible a division of labour in politics.

4. The representative democracy maintains stability by distancing ordinary citizens from politics, thereby encouraging them to accept compromise.

5. In radical democracy, democracy is not seen as a means M laying down a framework within which individuals can go about their own business, but rather as a general principle that is applicable to all areas of social existence.

6. Instead of endorsing mere political democracy, socialists have called for 'social democracy' or 'industrial democracy'.

7. In considering the transformation of America from a loose confederation of states into the federal USA, particular fear was the 'problem of factions'.

8. 'Electoral politics' amounts to self-defeating process in which politicians are encouraged to compete for power hy offering increasingly unrealistic promises to the electorate.

Ex. 8. Translate into English using the GERUND:

1. 'Демократия участия' (партиципаторная демократия) — это общество, в котором каждый (each and every citizen) имеет возможность достичь саморазвития, участвуя в принятии решений, которые формируют (to shape) его жизнь.

2. Если общая воля (the general will) не может быть установ­лена посредством прямот опроса (by simply asking! граж­дан (потому что, как утверждают, они могут быть ослепле­ны своим эгоизмом), возникает пространство (there is scope for) для кого-то сверху самому определить эту общую волю для граждан,

3. Участвуя в политической жизни, граждане лучше понима­ют (enhance their understanding) события и достигают (to achieve) более высокого уровня личного развития.

4. Он выступал (to advocate) за сильную и независимую мест­ную власть (authorities), убежденный в том (in the belief), что это расширит для граждан возможности лля занятия властных постов (for holding public office).

5. Его особенно заботило то, что демократия может привести к уменьшению (to undermine) критики и обеднению интел­лектуальной жизни вообще в результате подталкивания (by encouraging) людей к принятию воли большинства, тем са­мым способствуя (thereby promoting) единообразию (uniformity) и скучному конформизму (dull conformism).

1. Марксисты, как правило, не относятся серьезно (to be dismissive of) к либеральной или парламентской демокра­тии, рассматривая ее как форму 'буржуазной' или 'капита­листической' демократии.

2. В греческих городах-государствах участие в политике было ограничено небольшой долей населения — мужчинами старше 20 лет, исключая тем самым женщин, рабов и ино­странцев.

Ex. 9. Translate into English words in brackets, using the Gerund or the Infinitive

1. There is no (приравнять интересы двух партий).

2. There is not much (предоставить на рассмотрение).

3. (Выступить посредником в этом вопросе) is out of the question.

4. (Принять участие в собрании) would have been a mistake.

5. It is no good (дискутировать, не изложив свою программу).

6. It is very good (вовлекать молодых членов партии в избира­тельную кампанию к всеобщим выборам).

7. There is no reason for (не принимать участие в переговорах),

8. These party members have never intended (взывать к предрас­судкам и страстям).

9. When a beginning politician he (быть решительно настроен­ным отстоять свою точку зрения).

10. Now he is used (состязаться с соперником на равных).

11. They could not afford (принять участие в соревнованиях). The tickets for the plane were too expensive.

12. In spite of the late hour they went on (обсудить полномочия делегатов).

13. They could not help (относиться к этому политику с долж­ным уважением).

14. Every UN member state enjoys the right (представить вопрос на рассмотрение Совета Безопасности ООН).

Ex. 10. Open the brackets, making all necessary changes

Now that we have decided who the (to rule) people are, and how they should (to rule), it is necessary (to consider) how far their rule should (to extend). What is the proper realm of democracy? What issues is it right for the people (to decide), and what should (to leave) to individual citizens? In many respects such questions (to be sure) (to reopen) the debate about the proper relationship between the public realm and the private realm.

On (to consider) the problem thoroughly, we can't help (to come to) the conclusion that the purpose of democracy is (to establish) through some process of popular participation, a framework of laws for people (to conduct) their own affairs and (to pursue) their private interests.

(To construct) the models of democracy on the basis of liberal individualism, some scientists proposed that democracy (to be restricted) to political life with politics narrowly (to define).

There is no (to deny) that democratic solutions are appropriate for matters (to relate) to the community.

(To use) in other circumstances, democracy amounts to an (to allege) infringement of liberty. The fear of democracy (to be certain) (to reflect) in a rejection of direct or participatory forms of democracy.

Ex. 11. Translate from Russian into English:

1. Прямая демократия (иногда называемая 'демократией уча-стия'/партиципаторной демократией) основывается на прямом, непосредственном и постоянном участии граждан в решении задач государства.

2. Таким образом, прямая демократия устраняет различие между государством и обществом, между правящими и управляемыми. Это — система общественного самоуправ­ления (popular self-government).

3. Эта система обеспечивает законность власти, так как люди с большей вероятностью (to be more likely to do) восприни­мают (to accept) решения, которые они принимали сами.

4. Представительская демократия (репрезентативная) - огра­ниченная, непрямая форма демократии. Она ограничена в том смысле, что общественное участие в управлении носит нечастый и краткий характер, будучи ограниченным лишь актом голосования каждые несколько лет. Она — непрямая форма демократии в том смысле, что общественность (the public) не осуществляет сама властных полномочий, а лишь выбирает тех, кто будет править от ее имени.

у Представительская демократия предлагает практичную форму демократии, так как прямое участие населения дос­тижимо только в небольших общинах.

ь. Представительская демократия дает возможность (to allow) 'управлению' оказаться (to be placed) в руках более образо­ванных, опытных и профессионально подготовленных гра­ждан общества.

Ex. 12. Linking words

Put one of the following words or phrases into each gap

(for instance; although; and so; in the final analysis; not only.., but;

finally; nevertheless; in this case; alternatively; in this sense)

... 'the people' is now accepted as meaning virtually all adult citizens, the term can be construed in a number of different ways.

The people, , can be viewed as a single, cohesive body, bound

together by a common or collective interest: , the people are

one and indivisible. as division and disagreement exist within all communities, 'the people' may in practice be taken to mean 'the

majority' , democracy comes to mean the strict application

of the principle of majority rule in which the will of the majority or numerically strongest overrides the will of the minority. This can ... mean that democracy degenerates into 'the tyranny of the majority'.

the people can be thought of as a collection of free and equal individuals, each of whom has a right to make autonomous

decisions does this view clearly contradict any form of

majoritarianism, ... it also implies that, , only unanimous

decisions can be binding upon the demos, dramatically restricts

the application of democratic principles.