Text 3: демократия

Повсеместное превращение (conversion) политиков и полити­ческих теоретиков в приверженных сторонников дела демокра­тии стало одним из самых ярких (dramatic) и значимых событий в политической истории последних лет. Даже в Древней Гре­ции, которую часто называют колыбелью демократической идеи, о демократии, как правило, рассуждали (tended to be viewed) в негативных категориях. Так например, такие мыслите­ли как Платон² и Аристотель рассматривали демократию как систему правления народных масс в ущерб (at the expense of) просвещенным слоям населения и собственникам. Вплоть до девятнадцатого века этот термин все еще имел отрицательную трактовку, означая систему «права толпы» (mob mie). Однако, сейчас мы все — демократы. Либералы, консерваторы, социали­сты, коммунисты, анархисты и даже фашисты готовы публично заявлять о добродетелях демократии и тем самым оправдывать свои мандаты на правление (credentials).

Все дело в том, что неудачи или крах главных идеологиче­ских систем в конце двадцатого века еще больше раздули пламя демократии (flame, to burn). Так как привлекательность социа­лизма потускнела, а достоинства капитализма поставлены под сомнение, демократия возродилась как, возможно, единственно стабильный и надежный (enduring) принцип постмодернист­ского (postmodem) политического пейзажа.

Ex. 13. Translate from English into Russian

Text 4: defining democracy

² Plato (427-346 B.C.) - Greek philosopher. 102

The origins of the term democracy can be traced back to Ancient Greece. Like other words ending in 'cracy' (for example, autocracy, aristocracy and bureaucracy), democracy is derived from the Greek word kratos, meaning power, or rule. Democracy thus means 'rule by the demos' (the demos referring to 'the people', although the Greeks originally used this to mean 'the poor' or 'the many'). However, the simple notion of 'rule by the people' does not get us very far. The problem with democracy has been its veiy popularity, a popularity that has threatened the term's undoing as a meaningful political concept. In being almost universally regarded as a 'good thing', democracy has come to be used as little more than a 'hurrah! word', implying approval of a particular set of ideas or system of rule. A lcrm that can mean anything to anyone is in danger of meaning nothing at all. Amongst the meanings that have been attached to the word 'democracy' are the following:

• a system of rule by the poor and disadvantaged

• a form of government in which the people rule themselves directly and continuously, without the need for professional politicians or public officials

• a society based on equal opportunity and individual merit, rather than hierarchy and privilege

• a system of welfare and redistribution aimed at narrowing social inequalities

• a system of decision-making based on the principle of majority rule

• a system of rule that secures the rights and interests of minorities by placing checks upon the power of the majority

• a means of filling public offices through a competitive struggle for the popular vote

• a system of government that serves the interests of the people regardless of their participation in political life.

Perhaps a more helpful starting point from which to consider the tuiture of democracy is Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, delivered in 1864 at the height of the American Civil War. Lincoln extolled the virtues of what he called 'government of the people, by ihe people, and for the people'. What this makes clear is that democracy links government to the people, but that this link can be loiged in a number of ways: government of, by and for the people. The precise nature of democratic rule has been the subject of fierce ideological and political debate. This boils down to the attempt to answer three central questions:

• Who are the people?

• In what sense should the people rule?

• How far should popular rule extend?

Ex. 14, What do you think?

1 How has the term 'democracy' been used?

?.. Around what issues has the debate about the nature of

democracy revolved? i What models of democratic rule have been advanced? 4 What are the strengths and weaknesses of each of these models?

5. to .

   • Debates about the nature of democracy have tended to focus on three central issues. First, who are the people, or how far should

   political power ? Secondly, should the people in

   effect rule themselves, or should government be left

   ? Thirdly, what matters is it appropriate to

   decide collectively through ?

   • There are a number of rival models of democracy, each offering its own version of popular rule. These include: classical

   democracy, which is based on ;

   protective democracy, which is rooted in ;

   developmental democracy, which is concerned with

   , and people's democracy, which pays

   particular attention to .

   • Classical democracy, which is based on the political system in Athens in Ancient Greece, is defended on the grounds that it

   alone guarantees __ . Protective democracy gives

   citizens _ .

   Developmental democracy has the virtue that, in extending

   participation, it widens ________■ People's

   democracy aims to achieve __ ____, rather than merely

   the extension of political rights.

   • In practice, there is broad acceptance of a particular model of democracy, generally termed liberal democracy. Its central features are:

   How do democratic systems operate in practice?

6. Does democracy actually ensure rule by the people?

Ex. 15. Complete the sentences in each paragraph

SUMMARY

• The very popularity of democracy has threatened its use as a meaningful political term, and perhaps reduced it to a mere 'hurrah!' word. The meanings of the term have ranged from

Ex. 16. Comment on:

• 'Democracy is the worst form of government except all the other forms that have been tried'. (Winston Churchill, Speech, UK House of Commons, 1947.)

. ^LNo citizen shall be rich enough to buy another, and none as poor as to be forced to sell himself-proposed Rousseau.

Ex. 17. Questions for discussion:

• Why has democracy come to be so universally well regarded?

• Is direct democracy in any way applicable to modern circumstances?

• What are the principal virtues of democracy?

• What are the drawbacks or dangers of democracy?

• Which model of democracy is the most attractive, and why?

. Do modern forms of representative democracy deserve to be

described as democratic? . What are the major threats to democracy in modern society?

• There is considerable controversy about how liberal-democratic systems work in practice. Pluralists praise their capacity to guarantee popular responsiveness and public accountability.

Elitists highlight the tendency for .

Corporatists draw attention to .

The New Right focuses on the dangers of