Exercise 11. Compose sentences with different time signals. Use the active vocabulary:

A group, construct, road (last month). – The group constructed the road last month

1) now	7) when you came yesterday
2) by 3 o’clock tomorrow	8) before you arrive
3) by 5 o’clock yesterday	9) a week ago
4) tomorrow	10) this week
5) the whole day yesterday	11) for two hours already
6) every morning	12) from 2 to 3 tomorrow

Exercise 12. Translate into English. Put different types of questions to the sentences:

1. Вони будуть будувати цю дорогу весь цей рік.

2. Вони побудують цю дорогу до наступного року.

3. Коли ти прийдеш, я буду розробляти наш новий маршрут.

4. До твого приходу я розроблю наш новий маршрут.

5. Ми будемо переборювати ущелину на заході.

6. До заходу сонця ми саме переборемо ущелину.

7. Будівельники будуть будувати в цьому місці підвісний міст наступні декілька років.

8. Через декілька років вони вже побудують тут підвісний міст.

9. Ми будемо весь час осушувати цю місцевість під час будівництва.

10. До початку будівництва ми вже осушимо цю місцевість цілком.

11. Бригада не здолає наслідки землетрусу до прибуття допомоги.

12. Цю місцевість буде осушено до початку будівництва дороги.

13. На цьому тижні вони будуть розробляти нові покриття для шосе.

14. Загальна кількість перешкод для змагань буде обговорюватися на зборах.

15. Цей гірський ланцюг буде руйнуватися протягом багатьох років.

16. До того року робітники вже прокладуть міст через цю ріку.

TEXT 7 A

Task 1. Think over the answers to the following questions:

1. Could primitive people do without roads?

2. What were the first types of roads like?

3. Who were the first road-builders?

4. How did people travel in ancient times?

5. What are bridges needed for?

6. What things can serve as a primitive bridge?

7. In what way did the invention of different types of bridges and methods of construction add our life?

Task 2. Read and translate the text.

ROADS AND BRIDGES

History of roads and highways

Road is a strip of land that provides routes for travel by automobiles and other wheeled vehicles. Roads usually connect urban areas with each other and rural areas with urban areas. Roads within towns and cities are called streets.

The first roads. Roads are so old that we are not sure of the origin of the word “road”. Most experts think it came from the Middle English word “rode”, meaning a “mounted journey”. This may have come from the Old English “ridan” meaning “to ride”.

In England, hundreds of years ago, certain main roads were higher than the surrounding ground. This was because earth was thrown from the side ditches toward the center. Because they were higher they were called “highways”. These roads were under protection of the king’s men and were open to the travellers. Private roads were known as “byways”.

The first roads in the world probably followed trails and paths made by animals. These trails and paths led from feeding grounds to watering places. People followed these trails to hunt for animals. People also made their own trails and paths in searching for water, food and fuel. Explorers followed these trails as they investigated new lands.

Early roads were built in the Near East soon after the wheel was invented. This was about 3000 B.C. as trade developed between villages, towns, and cities, other paths, or trade routes, were made. One such early system of roads was the Old Silk Trade Route which ran over 6,000 miles (9,700 kilometres), connecting China with Rome and pre-Christian Europe. Merchants used this ancient route to carry Chinese silk across Turkestan, India and Persia.

The first road markers were piles of stones at intervals. Trail through forests were marked by blazing trees, or cutting a piece from the bark of the tree.

But the first really great road builders were the Romans. They knew that the road must slope slightly from the centre toward both sides to drain off water. This gave the road a crown. The Romans also knew that there must be ditches along the sides of the road to carry water away. Roman roads were built mainly to get soldiers from one part of the empire to another. These roads ran in almost straight lines and passed over hills instead of cutting around them. The Romans built more than 50,000 miles (80,000 kilometres) of roads in their empire and some of them are still in use.

From 500’s to 1800’s, most roads in Europe were merely clearings in the forests. Cobblestone pavement was used in some urban areas. There was little reason to build good roads, because most of the travel was on horseback. The cleared way was sometimes quite wide, so that robbers hiding in the woods could not leap out suddenly upon unsuspecting travellers. Later, when more wheeled vehicles, such as wagons, came into use, the roads of Europe still remained in poor condition.

In South America, from 1200’s to 1500’s, the Inca Indians built a network of 10,000 miles (16,000 kilometres) of roads. The roads connected their cities.

The first Highway Department was established in France in 1716. This department built Europe’s finest gravel and stone roads of the 1700’s using methods developed by Pierre M. J. Tresaquet, an engineer.

In the early 1800’s, the person who did more for European road-building than anyone else up to that time was John Loudon McAdam, a Scottish engineer. McAdam is remembered for the surface he developed for roads. This kind of surface, called macadam, is still used today. McAdam also stressed the importance of proper drainage to keep roads on a solid foundation.

Bridge is a structure used by people and vehicles to cross areas that are obstacles to travel. Engineers build bridges over lakes, rivers, canyons, and busy highways and railroad tracks. Without bridges, people would need boats to cross waterways and would have to travel around such obstacles as canyons and ravines.

From the history of bridges. Logs or vines that extended across streams probably served as the first bridges. The first bridge known to historians was an arch bridge built in Babylon about 2200 B.C. The ancient Chinese, Egyptians, Greeks and Romans also built arch bridges, using bricks and stone as building materials.

During the Middle Ages, moveable bridges called drawbridges were built across the moats of many castles in Europe. Truss bridges were developed in the 1500’s. Most bridges were made of stone or wood until the late 1700’s, when cast iron* and wrough iron* were first used for bridges. Many suspension bridges* that hung from iron chains were built in the early 1800’s.

The first bridge made up with concrete was built in 1869. A short time later, builders began using reinforced concrete for bridges. During the 1930’s, prestressed concrete became an important material for bridge-building. The modern cable-stayed* bridge was introduced in 1955.

Bridges range in length from a few feet or metres to several miles or kilometres. A bridge must be strong enough to support its own weight as well as the weight of the people and vehicles that use it. It also must resist natural occurrences, including earthquakes, strong winds, and changes in temperature. Most modern bridges have a concrete, steel, or wood framework and an asphalt or concrete roadway. The roadway is the part of a bridge on which people and vehicles travel.

Most bridges are held up by at least two supports set in the ground. The distance between two adjacent supports is called a span* of a bridge. The supports at each end of the bridge are called abutments,* and the supports that stand between the abutments are called piers.* The total length of the bridge is the distance between the abutments. Most short bridges are supported only by abutments and are known as single-span bridges. Bridges that have one or more piers in addition to the abutments are called multi-span bridges. Most long bridges are multi-span bridges.

A pontoon bridge has no piers or abutments. It is supported by pontoons (flat-bottomed boats) or other portable floats.

Supplementary vocabulary:

span – перегон abutment – опора, межа pier – столб, простінок cast iron – чугун

wrought iron – ковкий чугун suspension bridge – підвісний міст cable-stayed bridge – кабельний міст