Guide to Forming Plurals

The plurals of most nouns is formed by adding -s to the singular:

apple – apples

bell -bells

epoch -epochs

law – laws

shade – shades

Common nouns ending in -ch, -sh, -s, -ss, -x, -z, -zz usually form their plurals by adding -es:

church – churches

slash – slashes

class – classes

fox – foxes

quiz – quizzes

buzz – buzzes

Common nouns ending in -y preceded by a consonant or by -qu change the -y to -i and add -es:

baby – babies

city – cities

faculty – faculties

soliloquy – soliloquies

Proper nouns ending in -y form their plurals regularly, and do not change the -y to -i as common nouns do:

the two Kathys

the Connallys

the two Kansas Citys

There are a few well-known exceptions to this rule:

the Ptolemies

the Rockies

the Two Sicilies

Most nouns ending in -f, -ff, or -fe form their plurals regularly by adding -s to the singular:

chief – chiefs

proof – proofs

roof – roofs

sheriff – sheriffs

fife – fifes

However, some nouns ending in -f or -fe change the -f or -fe to -v and add -es:

calf – calves

elf – elves

half – halves

knife – knives

life – lives

loaf -loaves

self – selves

shelf – shelves

thief – thieves

wife – wives

wolf – wolves

A few nouns ending in -f or -ff, including

beef

dwarf

hoof

scarf

wharf

staff

have two plural forms:

beefs or beeves

dwarfs or dwarves

hoofs or hooves

scarfs or scarves

wharfs or wharves

staffs or staves

In this case sometimes different forms have different meanings, as

beefs (complaints) and beeves (animals)

staffs (people) and staves (long poles)

Nouns ending in -o preceded by a vowel form their plurals by adding -s to the singular:

cameo – cameos

duo – duos

studio – studios

zoo – zoos

Most nouns ending in -o preceded by a consonant also usually add -s to form the plural:

alto – altos

casino – casinos

ego – egos

Latino – Latinos

memo – memos

neutrino – neutrinos

poncho – ponchos

silo -silos

However, some nouns ending in -o preceded by a consonant add -es:

echo – echoes

hero – heroes

jingo – jingoes

no - noes

potato – potatoes

tomato – tomatoes

Some nouns ending in -o preceded by a consonant have two plural forms (the preferred form is given first):

buffaloes or buffalos

cargoes or cargos

desperadoes or desperados

halos or haloes

mosquitoes or mosquitos

zeros or zeroes

Most nouns ending in -i form their plurals by adding -s:

alibi – alibis

khaki – khakis

rabbi – rabbis

ski – skis

Three notable exceptions to this rule are:

alkali – alkalis or alkalies

taxi – taxis or taxies

chili – chillies.

Irregular plurals

1. mutation: seven nouns (and their compounds) change their root vowels in the plural-

man – men

woman – women

foot – feet

tooth – teeth

louse – lice

mouse – mice

goose – geese

2. -en plurals: three nouns-

child – children

ox – oxen

brother – brethren

3. zero plurals: have the same form in singular and plural, they are:

- animal names: fish, trout, deer, sheep, duck;

- nationality names or other proper nouns ending in -ese: Chinese, Viennese, Japanese + the noun Swiss;

- nouns denoting measure, quantity, number, when they are preceded by an indication of number: dozen, hundred, thousand, million, score;

- nouns ending in -s: means, works, crossroads, series, species, barracks, headquarters;

4. foreign plurals: some nouns have been adapted to the English system, others have both the foreign plural and the plural in -s, while others have only the foreign plural; when you have a choice, the foreign plural is preferred in the scientific language and the -s plural in the everyday language.

Latin plurals

* -us ending is changed to -i , -ora, -era

stimulus – stimuli

bacillus – bacilli

genus – genera

corpus – corpora

alumnus – alumni

Note: both forms have cactus – cacti – cactuses, nucleus – nuclei – nucleuses, radius – radii - radiuses;

* -a ending is changed to -ae:

larva – larvae

alga – algae

Note: both forms have vertebra – vertebrae – vertebras, formula – formulae – formulas

* -um ending is changed to -a:

addendum – addenda

datum – data

bacterium – bacteria

erratum – errata

medium – media

Note: both forms have sanatorium – sanatoria – sanatoriums, memorandum – memoranda – memorandums, stratum – strata – stratums, ultimatum – ultimata – ultimatums;

* -ex / -ix ending is changed to -ices:

codex – codices

Note: both forms have matrix – matrices – matrixes, index – indices – indexes, appendix – appendices – appendixes.

Greek plurals

• -is ending is changed to -es:

analysis – analyses

basis – bases

crisis – crises

• -on ending is changed to -a:

criterion – criteria

phenomenon – phenomena

Note: both forms has automaton – automata – automatons;

French plurals

• -e (a) ending is changed to -x;

bureau – bureaux - bureaus

adieu – adieux – adieus

Italian plurals

• -o/e ending is changed to -i:

virtuoso – virtuosi – virtuosos

tempo – tempi – tempos

libretto – libretti – librettos

Note: only regular plural have solo, soprano;

Hebrew plurals

• cherub – cherubim

seraph – seraphim – seraphs.

Table 1 shows a few of the words that English has taken from other languages that are most often found in the singular. In formal academic English, it is usually seen as correct to use the foreign plural forms. So these are given where we think they may be useful.

Table 1

Singular	Plural	Notes
Abscissa	abscissae	Possible variant -'abscissas'
Addendum	addenda	- 'the things that should be added'
Alumna	alumnae	These are the feminine forms,~'old girl(s)'
Alumnus	alumni	These are the masculine forms, ~'old boy(s)'
Analysis	analyses	Don't confuse with the verb 'to analyse=analyses'
+auditorium	auditoria
Appendix	appendices	Better academic plural than 'appendixes'
Automaton	automata	Possible variant -''automatons'
Axis	axes	Maths ( 'turning point', 'graph line'); History (the Axis = Germany, Italy, Japan in W. W. II)
Bacterium	bacteria
Cherub	cherubim	Religious context; but: Children are cherubs.
Compendium	compendia	Possible variant -'compendiums'
Consortium	consortia
Colloquium	colloquia
Continuum	continua
Corpus	corpora
Crisis	crises
Criterion	criteria
Curriculum	curricula	The adjective is 'curricular'
dictum	dicta
Emphasis	emphases	Don't confuse with 'to emphasize = emphasizes'
Erratum	errata
Focus	foci	Also: 'focuses'; in U.K. often irregular 'focuses'
Forum	fora	Many people say 'forums'
Fungus	fungi	Colloquially sometimes 'funguses'
Ganglion	ganglia
Genus	genera
Helix	helices
Hypothesis	hypotheses	Don't confuse with the verb 'to hypothesize'
Incunabulum	incunabula
Index	indices	Better academic plural than 'indexes'
Locus	loci
Maximum	maxima	Note adjective 'maximal'
Medium	media
Minimum	minima	Note adjective 'minimal'
Nebula	nebulae
Opus	opera	Musical plays use “the works” to move the audience
Persona	personae	Note: “personae non gratae”
Phenomenon	phenomena
Postscriptum	-scripta	Academics may add several “post scripta” to a letter, others have “postscripts”
Quantum	quanta	Possible variant- 'quantums'
Radius	radii
Referendum	referenda	Possible variant- 'referendums'
Rostrum	rostra	Rarely possible variant -'rostrums'
Seraph	seraphim	In academic religious studies
Series	series	Singular and the plural are the same
Simulacrum	simulacra
Species	species	Singular and the plural are the same
Spectrum	spectra
Stadium	stadia	Possible variant - 'stadiums'
Stimulus	stimuli
Stratum	strata
Syllabus	syllabi	Better in academic writing than 'syllabuses'
Synthesis	syntheses	The verb – 'to synthesize'
Thesis	theses
Ultimatum	ultimata
Vertex	vertices
Vortex	vortices

Some words are essentially used in English only in their plural form. Some of these are:

Table 2

Usual (plural) form	Original Singular	Comments
alia	alium	-”other things”
agenda	agendum	- the things that are to be done”
arcana	arcanum	-”the secret things”, only revealed to initiates
cetera	ceterum	- “the other things (et cetera – and the other things)
corrigenda	corrigendum	- “the things that should be corrected”
data	datum	The singular “datum” is rare nowadays
delenda	delendum	- “the things that are to be deleted”
emendenda	emendendum	- “the things that shouls be changed”
impedimenta	impedimentum	- 'baggage”
marginalia	marginalium
miscellanea	miscellaneum	- “miscellany'
paraphernalia		There is a singular – 'paraphernal', but it is rare

The plural of compound nouns:

1. -s is generally added to the final element (washing-machines, handfuls, forget-me-nots);

2. -s is added to the first element when:

• this is a noun ending in -er or -ing (passers-by, goings-out);

• the compound is formed of two nouns linked with a preposition (editors-in-chief, sons-in-law);

• the compound is formed of noun + adjective (courts-martial);

3. compounds with “and” make both elements plural (ins-and-outs, cons-and-pros);

4. compounds with “man” and “woman” make both elements plural (women-drivers, men-singers), but: woman-haters, man-eaters.

The countability of uncountable nouns

Uncountable nouns may be:

material nouns – air, milk, cotton, bread;

abstract nouns – biology, peace, music;

names of sport – football, swimming;

names of edible plants, when reference is made to the species itself – maize, onion, tomato, potato;

names of towns, cities, countries, months – London, England, February.

Note: there are some words which are uncountable nouns in English, but which refer to things that are considered countable in other languages, for instance 'advice, luggage / baggage, homework, knowledge, information, furniture, progress'.

The countability of uncountable nouns may be achieved by means of 'partitive' nouns. They may be:

• general partitives, which are not restricted to specific lexical items: piece, bit, item;

• typical partitives, which are words restricted to certain lexical items and which form expressions with specific uncountable nouns: bar, lump, fit, grain, etc.;

• measure partitives, which denote exact measurements: inch, gramme, mile, metre, yard, pound, etc.

Absolute singular (+singular verb)

- Concrete uncountable nouns – chocolate, sugar, gold, furniture; some of them can be classified as countable when their meaning changes, e.g. I'd like a coffee. Or: Romania's wines are famous.

- Abstract uncountable nouns – music, progress, nonsense, knowledge, advice; some abstract uncountable nouns can also be countable, when they refer to instances of a given abstract phenomenon, e.g. After many failures / difficulties, he succeeded.

- Proper nouns – John, America, October.

- Nouns ending in -s:

1. news;

2. diseases (measles, mumps);

3. sciences (optics, linguistics, statistics); but if the meaning is different, they take a plural verb, compare: Statistics is a branch of mathematics. The statistics show that imports are low.;

4. games (cards, dominoes, draughts, darts, billiards); in compounds they are used in the singular, e.g. dartboard, billiard-room;

5. abstract substantivized adjectives (the good, the evil).

Absolute plural (+ plural verb)

• Nouns denoting parts of the body – bowels, tonsils, entrails, e.g. His bowels are very sensitive.

• Nouns denoting the state of mind – hysterics, blues, spirits, e.g. High spirits are always appreciated.

• Nouns denoting articles of dress – trousers, shorts, flares, tights, braces, pajamas, e.g. Your pajamas are on the bed.

Note:

- number of contrasts is achieved by means of “a pair of”, e.g. He has only two pairs of trousers;

- when used attributively, these nouns are singular, e.g. a trouser leg.

• Nouns denoting tools and instruments consisting of two parts – scales, scissors, glasses / spectacles, tongs, pincers, (nail/hairdresser's) clippers, e.g. Where are the pincers?

Note:

- number contrasts is achieved by means of “a pair of”, e.g. He wore a pair of earphones, which were plugged into a tape-recorder;

- when used attributively, these nouns are singular, e.g. a spectacle case.

• Proper nouns – the Highlands, the Alps, the Netherlands.

• Verbal nouns in -ing – savings, earnings, belongings, proceedings, surroundings.

• Other “plural tantum”: clothes, customs, wages, premises, stairs, eaves, congratulations.

• Substantivized adjectives – chemicals, riches, valuables, goods, the rich, the poor, the dead.

• Unmarked plurals – cattle, clergy, people, police, military, vermin, poultry, e.g . These cattle belong to my parents.

Note:

- people = 'nation' – countable noun, e.g. This is an organization of English-speaking peoples.

-poultry = 'meat' – singular noun, e.g. Poultry is cheaper than veal.

Number and meaning

The following situations are possible:

1. nouns with two plural forms, each having its meaning(s):

brother – brothers / brethren

genius – geniuses – genii

staff – staffs – staves

2. nouns with one meaning in the singular and a different meaning in the plural:

air – airs

nylon – nylons

advice – advices

content – contents

3. nouns with plural form of two or more meanings:

effect – effects (1)/ effects (2)

custom – customs (1) / customs (2)

4. nouns, that besides the regular plural have a plural form which is identical with the singular form and which has a collective meaning;

cannon – cannons / cannon

horse – horses / horse

5. nouns that are countable in one meaning and uncountable in another meaning:

hair

business

character

game

sport

The category of gender

The category of gender is not richly developed in English, the gender usually coincides with the sex of the beings or objects denoted.

According to their lexical meaning all the nouns denoting living beings can be of the masculine or feminine gender; names of lifeless things and abstract notions are of the common gender.

1. Masculine Gender is represented by nouns denoting male beings (e.g. man, brother, son, uncle, king). They can be replaced by “he” and referred to by “him” or “himself”.

2. Feminine Gender is represented by nouns denoting female beings (e.g. mother, sister, queen), that can be replaced by “she” and referred to by “her” or herself”.

3. Common Gender is represented by nouns denoting beings which have only one form for both masculine and feminine (e.g. cousin, friend, teacher, neighbour). The gender proper of such nouns becomes obvious in the context: My neighbour Mary works in a hospital. When I met my neighbour, she told me about that accident.

Note: many grammar books perform titanic efforts trying to differentiate common gender into 1) common gender and 2) neuter gender. All those efforts are just subjective, semantic interpretation.

4. Neuter Gender is represented by nouns denoting inanimate objects, substances, abstractions, which are replaced by “it” or “they”: his class is small; it is made up of only 15 children.

Means of expressing the gender of animate nouns

1. Different words, one for the masculine and one for the feminine: boy / girl, gander / goose, bachelor / spinster.

Note:

Masculine	Feminine	Common noun
father	mother	parent
boy	girl	child
king	queen	monarch / sovereign
stag	hind	deer
boar	sow	pig

2. Composition: with the help of words denoting sex (male/female, boy/girl, man/woman, he/she, bull/cow, cock/hen, etc) or some proper names (billy /nanny, jack/jenny), e.g. milkman – milk-woman, male cousin – female cousin.

3. Suffixation: -ess added to the masculine to form the feminine:

- no change of the form: lion – lioness, host – hostess;

- omission of the vowel in the last syllable: tiger – tigress, actor – actress;

- -other modifications: duke – duchess, master – mistress;

-er or -groom added to the feminine to form the masculine:

widow – widower, bride – bridegroom;

other suffixes added to the masculine:

-ine (hero – heroine)

-ina ( czar/tsar – czarina/tsarina)

-ette (usher – usherette)

-ix (executor – executrix)

4. Nouns denoting animals are generally considered to be neuter; however, in personifications:

-big and strong animals (e.g. horse, lion, elephant, dog, eagle) are said to be masculine:

e.g. The lion was very proud of his mane.

-small animals (e.g. cat, mouse, hare) are looked upon as feminine:

e.g. The hare was afraid of her own shadow.

Note: in fairy-tales the gender of animals or plants often depends on the author.