- •Preface and Acknowledgments
- •Contents
- •Contributors
- •1: Embryology for Urologists
- •Introduction
- •Renal Development
- •Pronephros
- •Mesonephros
- •Metanephros
- •Development of the Collecting System
- •Critical Steps in Further Development
- •Anomalies of the Kidney
- •Renal Agenesis
- •Renal Aplasia
- •Renal Hypoplasia
- •Renal Ectopia
- •Renal Fusion
- •Ureteral Development
- •Anomalies of Origin
- •Anomalies of Number
- •Incomplete Ureteral Duplication
- •Complete Ureteral Duplication
- •Ureteral Ectopia
- •Embryology of Ectopia
- •Clinical Correlation
- •Location of Ectopic Ureteral Orifices – Male (in Descending Order According to Incidence)
- •Symptoms
- •Ureteroceles
- •Congenital Ureteral Obstruction
- •Pipestem Ureter
- •Megaureter-Megacystis Syndrome
- •Prune Belly Syndrome
- •Vascular Ureteral Obstructions
- •Division of the Urogenital Sinus
- •Bladder Development
- •Urachal Anomalies
- •Cloacal Duct Anomalies
- •Other Bladder Anomalies
- •Bladder Diverticula
- •Bladder Extrophy
- •Gonadal Development
- •Testicular Differentiation
- •Ovarian Differentiation
- •Gonadal Anomalies
- •Genital Duct System
- •Disorders of Testicular Function
- •Female Ductal Development
- •Prostatic Urethral Valves
- •Gonadal Duct Anomalies
- •External Genital Development
- •Male External Genital Development
- •Female External Genital Development
- •Anomalies of the External Genitalia
- •References
- •2: Gross and Laparoscopic Anatomy of the Upper Urinary Tract and Retroperitoneum
- •Overview
- •The Kidneys
- •The Renal Vasculature
- •The Renal Collecting System
- •The Ureters
- •Retroperitoneal Lymphatics
- •Retroperitoneal Nerves
- •The Adrenal Glands
- •References
- •3: Gross and Laparoscopic Anatomy of the Lower Urinary Tract and Pelvis
- •Introduction
- •Female Pelvis
- •Male Pelvis
- •Pelvic Floor
- •Urinary Bladder
- •Urethra
- •Male Urethra
- •Female Urethra
- •Sphincter Mechanisms
- •The Bladder Neck Component
- •The Urethral Wall Component
- •The External Urethral Sphincter
- •Summary
- •References
- •4: Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System
- •Testis and Scrotum
- •Spermatogenesis
- •Hormonal Regulation of Spermatogenesis
- •Genetic Regulation of Spermatogenesis
- •Epididymis and Ductus Deferens
- •Accessory Sex Glands
- •Prostate
- •Seminal Vesicles
- •Bulbourethral Glands
- •Penis
- •Erection and Ejaculation
- •References
- •5: Imaging of the Upper Tracts
- •Anatomy of the Upper Tracts and Introduction to Imaging Modalities
- •Introduction
- •Renal Upper Tract Basic Anatomy
- •Modalities Used for Imaging the Upper Tracts
- •Ultrasound
- •Radiation Issues
- •Contrast Issues
- •Renal and Upper Tract Tumors
- •Benign Renal Tumors
- •Transitional Cell Carcinoma
- •Renal Mass Biopsy
- •Renal Stone Disease
- •Ultrasound
- •Plain Radiographs and IVU
- •Renal Cystic Disease
- •Benign Renal Cysts
- •Hereditary Renal Cystic Disease
- •Complex Renal Cysts
- •Renal Trauma
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Pathophysiology
- •Susceptibility and Resistance
- •Epidemiological Breakpoints
- •Clinical Breakpoints
- •Pharmacodynamic Parameters
- •Pharmacokinetic Parameters
- •Fosfomycin
- •Nitrofurantoin
- •Pivmecillinam
- •b-Lactam-Antibiotics
- •Penicillins
- •Cephalosporins
- •Carbapenems
- •Aminoglycosides
- •Fluoroquinolones
- •Trimethoprim, Cotrimoxazole
- •Glycopeptides
- •Linezolid
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •7: An Overview of Renal Physiology
- •Introduction
- •Body Fluid Compartments
- •Regulation of Potassium Balance
- •Regulation of Acid–Base Balance
- •Diuretics
- •Suggested Reading
- •8: Ureteral Physiology and Pharmacology
- •Ureteral Anatomy
- •Modulation of Peristalsis
- •Ureteral Pharmacology
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Afferent Signaling Pathways
- •Efferent Signaling
- •Parasympathetic Nerves
- •Sympathetic Nerves
- •Vesico-Spinal-Vesical Micturition Reflex
- •Peripheral Targets
- •Afferent Signaling Mechanisms
- •Urothelium
- •Myocytes
- •Cholinergic Receptors
- •Muscarinic Receptors
- •Nicotinic Receptors
- •Adrenergic Receptors (ARs)
- •a-Adrenoceptors
- •b-Adrenoceptors
- •Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) Receptors
- •Phosphodiesterases (PDEs)
- •CNS Targets
- •Opioid Receptors
- •Serotonin (5-HT) Mechanisms
- •g-Amino Butyric Acid (GABA) Mechanisms
- •Gabapentin
- •Neurokinin and Neurokinin Receptors
- •Summary
- •References
- •10: Pharmacology of Sexual Function
- •Introduction
- •Sexual Desire/Arousal
- •Endocrinology
- •Steroids in the Male
- •Steroids in the Female
- •Neurohormones
- •Neurotransmitters
- •Dopamine
- •Serotonin
- •Pharmacological Strategies
- •CNS Drugs
- •Enzyme-inducing Antiepileptic Drugs
- •Erectile Function
- •Ejaculatory Function
- •Premature Ejaculation
- •Abnormal Ejaculation
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •Epidemiology
- •Calcium-Based Urolithiasis
- •Uric Acid Urolithiasis
- •Infectious Urolithiasis
- •Cystine-Based Urolithiasis
- •Aims
- •Who Deserves Metabolic Evaluation?
- •Metabolic Workup for Stone Producers
- •Medical History and Physical Examination
- •Stone Analysis
- •Serum Chemistry
- •Urine Evaluation
- •Urine Cultures
- •Urinalysis
- •Twenty-Four Hour Urine Collections
- •Radiologic Imaging
- •Medical Management
- •Conservative Management
- •Increased Fluid Intake
- •Citrus Juices
- •Dietary Restrictions
- •Restricted Oxalate Diet
- •Conservative Measures
- •Selective Medical Therapy
- •Absorptive Hypercalciuria
- •Thiazide
- •Orthophosphate
- •Renal Hypercalciuria
- •Primary Hyperparathyroidism
- •Hyperuricosuric Calcium Oxalate Nephrolithiasis
- •Enteric Hyperoxaluria
- •Hypocitraturic Calcium Oxalate Nephrolithiasis
- •Distal Renal Tubular Acidosis
- •Chronic Diarrheal States
- •Thiazide-Induced Hypocitraturia
- •Idiopathic Hypocitraturic Calcium Oxalate Nephrolithiasis
- •Hypomagnesiuric Calcium Nephrolithiasis
- •Gouty Diathesis
- •Cystinuria
- •Infection Lithiasis
- •Summary
- •References
- •12: Molecular Biology for Urologists
- •Introduction
- •Inherited Changes in Cancer Cells
- •VEGR and Cell Signaling
- •Targeting mTOR
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •13: Chemotherapeutic Agents for Urologic Oncology
- •Introduction
- •Bladder Cancer
- •Muscle Invasive Bladder Cancer
- •Metastatic Bladder Cancer
- •Conclusion
- •Prostate Cancer
- •Other Chemotherapeutic Drugs or Combinations for Treating HRPC
- •Conclusion
- •Renal Cell Carcinoma
- •Chemotherapy
- •Immunotherapy
- •Angiogenesis Inhibitor Drugs
- •Conclusion
- •Testicular Cancer
- •Stage I Seminoma
- •Stage I non-seminomatous Germ Cell Tumours (NSGCT)
- •Metastatic Germ Cell Tumours
- •Low-Volume Metastatic Disease (Stage II A/B)
- •Advanced Metastatic Disease
- •Salvage Chemotherapy for Relapsed or Refractory Disease
- •Conclusion
- •Penile Cancer
- •Side Effects of Chemotherapy
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •14: Tumor and Transplant Immunology
- •Antibodies
- •Cytotoxic and T-helper Cells
- •Immunosuppression
- •Induction Therapy
- •Maintenance Therapy
- •Rejection
- •Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disease
- •Summary
- •References
- •15: Pathophysiology of Renal Obstruction
- •Causes of Renal Obstruction
- •Effects on Prenatal Development
- •Prenatal Hydronephrosis
- •Spectrum of Renal Abnormalities
- •Renal Functional Changes
- •Renal Growth/Counterbalance
- •Vascular Changes
- •Inflammatory Mediators
- •Glomerular Development Changes
- •Mechanical Stretch of Renal Tubules
- •Unilateral Versus Bilateral
- •Limitations of Animal Models
- •Future Research
- •Issues in Patient Management
- •Diagnostic Imaging
- •Ultrasound
- •Intravenous Urography
- •Antegrade Urography and the Whitaker Test
- •Nuclear Renography
- •Computed Tomography
- •Magnetic Resonance Urography
- •Hypertension
- •Postobstructive Diuresis
- •References
- •Introduction
- •The Normal Lower Urinary Tract
- •Anatomy
- •Storage Function
- •Voiding Function
- •Neural Control
- •Symptoms
- •Flow Rate and Post-void Residual
- •Voiding Cystometry
- •Male
- •Female
- •Neurourology
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •17: Urologic Endocrinology
- •The Testis
- •Normal Androgen Metabolism
- •Epidemiological Aspects
- •Prostate
- •Brain
- •Muscle Mass and Adipose Tissue
- •Bones
- •Ematopoiesis
- •Metabolism
- •Cardiovascular System
- •Clinical Assessment
- •Biochemical Assessment
- •Treatment Modalities
- •Oral Preparations
- •Parenteral Preparations
- •Transdermal Preparations
- •Side Effects and Treatment Monitoring
- •Body Composition
- •Cognitive Decline
- •Bone Metabolism
- •The Kidneys
- •Endocrine Functions of the Kidney
- •Erythropoietin
- •Calcitriol
- •Renin
- •Paraneoplastic Syndromes
- •Hypercalcemia
- •Hypertension
- •Polycythemia
- •Other Endocrine Abnormalities
- •References
- •General Physiology
- •Prostate Innervation
- •Summary
- •References
- •Wound Healing
- •Inflammation
- •Proliferation
- •Remodeling
- •Principles of Plastic Surgery
- •Tissue Characteristics
- •Grafts
- •Flap
- •References
- •Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms
- •Storage Phase
- •Voiding Phase
- •Return to Storage Phase
- •Urodynamic Parameters
- •Urodynamic Techniques
- •Volume Voided Charts
- •Pad Testing
- •Typical Test Schedule
- •Uroflowmetry
- •Post Voiding Residual
- •Further Diagnostic Evaluation of Patients
- •Cystometry with or Without Video
- •Cystometry
- •Videocystometrography (Cystometry + Cystourethrography)
- •Cystometric Findings
- •Comment:
- •Measurements During the Storage Phase:
- •Measurements During the Voiding Phase:
- •Abnormal Function
- •Disorders of Sensation
- •Causes of Hypersensitive Bladder Sensation
- •Causes of Hyposensitive Bladder Sensation
- •Disorders of Detrusor Motor Function
- •Bladder Outflow Tract Dysfunction
- •Detrusor–Urethral Dyssynergia
- •Detrusor–Bladder Neck Dyssynergia
- •Detrusor–Sphincter Dyssynergia
- •Complex Urodynamic Investigation
- •Urethral Pressure Measurement
- •Technique
- •Neurophysiological Evaluation
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Endoscopy
- •Cystourethroscopy
- •Ureteroscopy and Ureteropyeloscopy
- •Nephroscopy
- •Virtual Reality Simulators
- •Lasers
- •Clinical Application of Lasers
- •Condylomata Acuminata
- •Urolithiasis
- •Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
- •Ureteral and Urethral Strictures
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •The Prostatitis Syndromes
- •The Scope of the Problem
- •Category III CP/CPPS
- •The Goal of Treatment
- •Conservative Management
- •Drug Therapy
- •Antibiotics
- •Anti-inflammatories
- •Alpha blockers
- •Hormone Therapies
- •Phytotherapies
- •Analgesics, muscle relaxants and neuromodulators
- •Surgery
- •A Practical Management Plan
- •References
- •Orchitis
- •Definition and Etiology
- •Clinical Signs and Symptoms
- •Diagnostic Evaluation
- •Treatment of Infectious Orchitis
- •Epididymitis
- •Definition and Etiology
- •Clinical Signs and Symptoms
- •Diagnostic Evaluation of Epididymitis
- •Treatment of Acute Epididymitis
- •Treatment of Chronic Epididymitis
- •Treatment of Spermatic Cord Torsion
- •Fournier’s Gangrene
- •Definition and Etiology
- •Risk Factors
- •Clinical Signs and Symptoms
- •Diagnostic Evaluation
- •Treatment
- •References
- •Fungal Infections
- •Candidiasis
- •Aspergillosis
- •Cryptococcosis
- •Blastomycosis
- •Coccidioidomycosis
- •Histoplasmosis
- •Radiographic Findings
- •Treatment
- •Tuberculosis
- •Clinical Manifestations
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Schistosomiasis
- •Clinical Manifestations
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Filariasis
- •Clinical Manifestations
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Onchocerciasis
- •References
- •25: Sexually Transmitted Infections
- •Introduction
- •STIs Associated with Genital Ulcers
- •Herpes Simplex Virus
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Chancroid
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Syphilis
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Lymphogranuloma Venereum
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Chlamydia
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Gonorrhea
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Trichomoniasis
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Human Papilloma Virus
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Scabies
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •References
- •26: Hematuria: Evaluation and Management
- •Introduction
- •Classification of Hematuria
- •Macroscopic Hematuria
- •Microscopic Hematuria
- •Dipstick Hematuria
- •Pseudohematuria
- •Factitious Hematuria
- •Menstruation
- •Aetiology
- •Malignancy
- •Urinary Calculi
- •Infection and Inflammation
- •Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
- •Trauma
- •Drugs
- •Nephrological Causes
- •Assessment
- •History
- •Examination
- •Investigations
- •Dipstick Urinalysis
- •Cytology
- •Molecular Tests
- •Blood Tests
- •Flexible Cystoscopy
- •Upper Urinary Tract Evaluation
- •Renal USS
- •KUB Abdominal X-Ray
- •Intravenous Urography (IVU)
- •Computed Tomography (CT)
- •Retrograde Urogram Studies
- •Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
- •Additional Tests and Renal Biopsy
- •Intractable Hematuria
- •Loin Pain Hematuria Syndrome
- •References
- •27: Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)
- •Historical Background
- •Pathophysiology
- •Patient Assessment
- •Treatment of BPH
- •Watchful Waiting
- •Drug Therapy
- •Interventional Therapies
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •28: Practical Guidelines for the Treatment of Erectile Dysfunction and Peyronie´s Disease
- •Erectile Dysfunction
- •Introduction
- •Diagnosis
- •Basic Evaluation
- •Cardiovascular System and Sexual Activity
- •Optional Tests
- •Treatment
- •Medical Treatment
- •Oral Agents
- •Phosphodiesterase Type 5 (PDE 5) Inhibitors
- •Nonresponders to PDE5 Inhibitors
- •Apomorphine SL
- •Yohimbine
- •Intracavernosal and Intraurethral Therapy
- •Intracavernosal Injection (ICI) Therapy
- •Intraurethral Therapy
- •Vacuum Constriction Devices
- •Surgical Therapy
- •Conclusion
- •Peyronie´s Disease (PD)
- •Introduction
- •Oral Drug Therapy
- •Intralesional Drug Therapy
- •Iontophoresis
- •Radiation Therapy
- •Surgical Therapy
- •References
- •29: Premature Ejaculation
- •Introduction
- •Epidemiology
- •Defining Premature Ejaculation
- •Voluntary Control
- •Sexual Satisfaction
- •Distress
- •Psychosexual Counseling
- •Pharmacological Treatment
- •On-Demand Treatment with Tramadol
- •Topical Anesthetics
- •Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors
- •Surgery
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •30: The Role of Interventional Management for Urinary Tract Calculi
- •Contraindications to ESWL
- •Complications of ESWL
- •PCNL Access
- •Instrumentation for PCNL
- •Nephrostomy Drains Post PCNL
- •Contraindications to PCNL
- •Complications of PCNL
- •Semirigid Ureteroscopy
- •Flexible Ureteroscopy
- •Electrohydraulic Lithotripsy (EHL)
- •Ultrasound
- •Ballistic Lithotripsy
- •Laser Lithotripsy
- •Ureteric Stents
- •Staghorn Calculi
- •Lower Pole Stones
- •Horseshoe Kidneys and Stones
- •Calyceal Diverticula Stones
- •Stones and PUJ Obstruction
- •Treatment of Ureteric Colic
- •Medical Expulsive Therapy (MET)
- •Intervention for Ureteric Stones
- •Stones in Pregnancy
- •Morbid Obesity
- •References
- •Anatomy and Function
- •Pathophysiology
- •Management
- •Optical Urethrotomy/Dilatation
- •Urethral Stents
- •Preoperative Assessment
- •Urethroplasty
- •Anastomotic Urethroplasty
- •Substitution Urethroplasty
- •Grafts Versus Flaps
- •Oral Mucosal Grafts
- •Tissue Engineering
- •Graft Position
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •32: Urinary Incontinence
- •Epidemiology and Risk Factors
- •Pathophysiology
- •Urge Incontinence
- •Conservative Treatments
- •Pharmacotherapy
- •Invasive/ Surgical Therapies
- •Stress Urinary Incontinence
- •Male SUI Therapies
- •Female SUI Therapies
- •Mixed Urinary Incontinence
- •Conclusions
- •References
- •33: Neurogenic Bladder
- •Introduction
- •Examination and Diagnostic Tests
- •History and Physical Examination
- •Imaging
- •Urodynamics (UDS)
- •Evoked Potentials
- •Classifications
- •Somatic Pathways
- •Brain Lesions
- •Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)
- •Parkinson’s Disease (PD)
- •Multiple Sclerosis
- •Huntington’s Disease
- •Dementias
- •Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus (NPH)
- •Tumors
- •Psychiatric Disorders
- •Spinal Lesions and Pathology
- •Intervertebral Disk Prolapse
- •Spinal Cord Injury (SCI)
- •Transverse Myelitis
- •Peripheral Neuropathies
- •Metabolic Neuropathies
- •Pelvic Surgery
- •Treatment
- •Summary
- •References
- •34: Pelvic Prolapse
- •Introduction
- •Epidemiology
- •Anatomy and Pathophysiology
- •Evaluation and Diagnosis
- •Outcome Measures
- •Imaging
- •Urodynamics
- •Indications for Management
- •Biosynthetics
- •Surgical Management
- •Anterior Compartment Repair
- •Uterine/Apical Prolapse
- •Enterocele Repair
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •35: Urinary Tract Fistula
- •Introduction
- •Urogynecologic Fistula
- •Vesicovaginal Fistula
- •Etiology and Risk Factors
- •Clinical Factors
- •Evaluation and Diagnosis
- •Pelvic Examination
- •Cystoscopy
- •Imaging
- •Treatment
- •Conservative Management
- •Surgical Management
- •Urethrovaginal Fistula
- •Etiology and Presentation
- •Diagnosis and Management
- •Ureterovaginal Fistula
- •Etiology and Presentation
- •Diagnosis and Management
- •Vesicouterine Fistula
- •Etiology and Presentation
- •Diagnosis and Management
- •Uro-Enteric Fistula
- •Vesicoenteric Fistula
- •Pyeloenteric Fistula
- •Urethrorectal Fistula
- •References
- •36: Urologic Trauma
- •Introduction
- •Kidney
- •Expectant Management
- •Endovascular Therapy
- •Operative Intervention
- •Operative Management: Follow-up
- •Reno-Vascular Injuries
- •Pediatric Renal Injuries
- •Adrenal
- •Ureter
- •Diagnosis
- •Treatment
- •Delayed Diagnosis
- •Bladder and Posterior Urethra
- •Bladder Injuries: Initial Management
- •Bladder Injuries: Formal Repair
- •Anterior Urethral Trauma
- •Fractured Penis
- •Penile Amputation
- •Scrotal and Testicular Trauma
- •Imaging
- •CT-IVP (CT with Delayed Images)
- •Technique
- •Cystogram
- •Technique
- •Retrograde Urethrogram (RUG)
- •Technique
- •Retrograde Pyelogram (RPG)
- •Technique
- •One-Shot IVP
- •Technique
- •References
- •37: Bladder Cancer
- •Who Should Be Investigated?
- •Epidemiology
- •Risk Factors
- •Role of Screening
- •Signs and Symptoms
- •Imaging
- •Cystoscopy
- •Urine Tests
- •PDD-Assisted TUR
- •Pathology
- •NMIBC and Risk Groups
- •Intravesical Chemotherapy
- •Intravesical Immunotherapy
- •Immediate Cystectomy and CIS
- •Radical Cystectomy with Pelvic Lymph Node Dissection
- •sexual function-preserving techniques
- •Bladder-Preservation Treatments
- •Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy
- •Adjuvant Chemotherapy
- •Preoperative Radiotherapy
- •Follow-up After TUR in NMIBC
- •References
- •38: Prostate Cancer
- •Introduction
- •Epidemiology
- •Race
- •Geographic Variation
- •Risk Factors and Prevention
- •Family History
- •Diet and Lifestyle
- •Prevention
- •Screening and Diagnosis
- •Current Screening Recommendations
- •Biopsy
- •Pathology
- •Prognosis
- •Treatment of Prostate Cancer
- •Treatment for Localized Prostate Cancer (T1, T2)
- •Radical Prostatectomy
- •EBRT
- •IMRT
- •Brachytherapy
- •Treatment for Locally Advanced Prostate Cancer (T3, T4)
- •EBRT with ADT
- •Radical Prostatectomy
- •Androgen-Deprivation Therapy
- •Summary
- •References
- •39: The Management of Testis Cancer
- •Presentation and Diagnosis
- •Serum Tumor Markers
- •Primary Surgery
- •Testis Preserving Surgery
- •Risk Stratification
- •Surveillance Versus Primary RPLND
- •Primary RPLND
- •Adjuvant Treatment for High Risk
- •Clinical Stage 1 Seminoma
- •Risk-Stratified Adjuvant Treatment
- •Adjuvant Radiotherapy
- •Adjuvant Low Dose Chemotherapy
- •Primary Combination Chemotherapy
- •Late Toxicity
- •Salvage Strategies
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Index
523
BladdEr cancEr
recurrences are a very important prognostic fac- |
advised for evaluation of local recurrence and |
tor and therefore, the first follow-up cystoscopy |
chest X-ray for evaluation of lung metastasis. |
should be performed 3 months after the TUR in |
Cytological examination of urethral washings or |
every patient with NMIBC. Further follow-up |
voided urinary cytology is advised to monitor |
schemes are based on the risks of recurrence and |
urethral recurrence. For evaluation of the upper |
progression. The following schedule for follow- |
urinary tracts, CT-urography or IVP and upper |
up is proposed by the EAU. In patients with low- |
tract urinary cytology are advised.64,65 A recom- |
risk tumors and no recurrence on cystoscopy at |
mended follow-up scheme includes imaging of |
3 months, the next follow-up assessment can be |
the upper tract yearly and CT/MRI of the pelvis |
performed 9 months later and then yearly up to |
and abdomen, chest X-ray, and cytology (both |
5 years.In patients with high-risk tumors,assess- |
urethral washing and upper tract) half-yearly |
ment should be performed every 3 months fol- |
for the first 2 years and yearly thereafter.64 |
lowing TUR for the first 2 years, every 4 months |
It is also important to look for functional |
in the third year, every 6 months up to the fifth |
complications after urinary diversion. Blood |
year, and annually thereafter. For patients with |
chemistry should be performed regularly: elec- |
an intermediate-risk tumor, the schedule lies in |
trolytes, base excess, Vitamin B12 for metabolic |
between.10 The AUA recommends a likewise |
complications, and creatinin for kidney func- |
schedule with assessment every 3 months in the |
tion. Furthermore, imaging of the diversion and |
first 2 years, every 6 months for the subsequent |
upper urinary tract is required to detect urinary |
2–3 years, and annually thereafter.28 The risk of |
stones or upper tract dilatation.64 |
upper urinary tract tumors increases in patients |
|
with multiple and high-risk tumors. Therefore, it |
|
is advised to evaluate the upper urinary tract |
References |
every year in high-risk patients.10 |
Follow-up in Muscle-Invasive
Bladder Cancer
Patients with muscle-invasive bladder cancer treated with radical cystectomy are at risk of developing local or distant recurrence. Contemporary series demonstrate a 5–15% chance of local recurrence and 50% chance of distant recurrence, depending on stage and lymph node status at time of cystectomy. The most common sites of local recurrence are vaginal wall, rectum, or pelvic lymph nodes not removed during surgery. Symptoms of local recurrence are pelvic, perineal, or lower extremity pain, bleeding, lower extremity or penile edema, bowel obstruction, constipation, and priapism. The most common sites of distant recurrence are lung,liver,and bones.Furthermore, recurrence may occur at the urethra (8–17%) or upper urinary tract (2–4%).64
Follow-up schedules should be modeled to the patient’s risk for tumor recurrence. At every visit, a history and physical examination should be performed including digital rectal or vaginal examination to search for a palpable pelvic mass. Blood chemistry should be performed focusing on liver and kidney tests. With regard to imaging, MRI or CT of the abdomen and pelvis is
1.Ferlay J, Parkin DM, Steliarova-Foucher E. Estimates of cancer incidence and mortality in Europe in 2008. Eur J Cancer. 2010;46:765-781
2.Jemal A, Siegel R, Xu J, Ward E. Cancer statistics, 2010. CA Cancer J Clin. 2010;60:277-300
3.Grasso M. Bladder cancer: a major public health issue. Eur Urol Suppl. 2008;7:510-515
4.Madeb R, Golijanin D, Knopf J, Messing EM. Current state of screening for bladder cancer. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther. 2007;7:981-987
5.Colombel M, Soloway M, Akaza H, et al. Epidemiology, staging, grading and risk stratification of bladder cancer. Eur Urol Suppl. 2008;7:618-626
6.Kirkali Z, Chan T, Manoharan M, et al. Bladder cancer: epidemiology, staging and grading, and diagnosis. Urology. 2005;66:4-34
7.Shokeir AA. Squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder: pathology, diagnosis and treatment. BJU Int. 2004;93: 216-220
8.Palou J, Rodriguez-Rubio F, Huguet J, et al. Multivariate analysis of clinical parameters of synchronous primary superficial bladder cancer and upper urinary tract tumor. J Urol. 2005;174:859-861
9.Stacul F, Rossi A, Cova MA. CT urography: the end of IVU? Radiol Med. 2008;113:658-669
10.Babjuk M, Oosterlinck W, Sylvester R, Kaasinen E, Bohle A, Palou-Redorta J. EAU Guidelines on non-mus- cle-invasive urothelial carcinoma of the bladder. Eur Urol. 2008;54:303-314
11.Jocham D, Stepp H,Waidelich R. Photodynamic diagnosis in urology: state-of-the-art. Eur Urol. 2008;53:1138-1150
12.Bryan RT, Billingham LJ, Wallace DM. Narrow-band imaging flexible cystoscopy in the detection of recurrent
524
Practical Urology: EssEntial PrinciPlEs and PracticE
urothelial cancer of the bladder. BJU Int. 2008;6: 702-705
13.Herr HW, Donat SM. A comparison of white-light cystoscopy and narrow-band imaging cystoscopy to detect bladder tumour recurrences. BJU Int. 2008;9:1111-1114
14.Crow P, Stone N, Kendall CA, Persad RA, Wright MP. Optical diagnostics in urology: current applications and future prospects. BJU Int. 2003;92:400-407
15.Engers R. Reproducibility and reliability of tumor grading in urological neoplasms. World J Urol. 2007;25: 595-605
16.Lokeshwar VB, Habuchi T, Grossman HB, et al. Bladder tumormarkersbeyondcytology:InternationalConsensus Panel on bladder tumor markers. Urology. 2005;66:35-63
17.Brausi M, Collette L, Kurth K, et al. Variability in the recurrence rate at first follow-up cystoscopy after TUR in stage Ta T1 transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: a combined analysis of seven EORTC studies. Eur Urol. 2002;41:523-531
18.Daniltchenko DI, Riedl CR, Sachs MD, et al. Long-term benefit of 5-aminolevulinic acid fluorescence assisted transurethral resection of superficial bladder cancer: 5-year results of a prospective randomized study. J Urol. 2005;174:2129-2133
19.Denzinger S, Burger M,Walter B, et al. Clinically relevant reduction in risk of recurrence of superficial bladder cancer using 5-aminolevulinic acid-induced fluorescence diagnosis: 8-year results of prospective randomized study. Urology. 2007;69:675-679
20.KriegmairM,ZaakD,RothenbergerKH,etal.Transurethral resection for bladder cancer using 5-aminolevulinic acid induced fluorescence endoscopy versus white light endoscopy. J Urol. 2002;168:475-478
21.Sylvester RJ, Oosterlinck W, van der Meijden AP.A single immediate postoperative instillation of chemotherapy decreases the risk of recurrence in patients with stage Ta T1 bladder cancer: a meta-analysis of published results of randomized clinical trials. J Urol. 2004;171: 2186-90
22.Sobin LH,Wittekind Ch.TNM Classification of Malignant Tumors. 6th ed. New York: Wiley Liss; 2002:196-198
23.Epstein JI, Amin MB, Reuter VR, Mostofi FK. The World Health Organization/International Society of Urological Pathology consensus classification of urothelial (transitional cell) neoplasms of the urinary bladder. Bladder Consensus Conference Committee. Am J Surg Pathol. 1998;22:1435-1448
24.Eble JN, Sauter G, Epstein JI, Sesterhenn IA. WHO Classification of Tumours. Pathology and Genetics of Tumours of the Urinary System and Male Genital Organs. Lyon: IARCC Press; 2004
25.Herr HW. Surgical factors in the treatment of superficial and invasive bladder cancer. Urol Clin North Am. 2005;32:157-164
26.Divrik RT, Yildirim U, Zorlu F, Ozen H. The effect of repeat transurethral resection on recurrence and progression rates in patients with T1 tumors of the bladder who received intravesical mitomycin: a prospective, randomized clinical trial. J Urol. 2006;175:1641-1644
27.Sylvester RJ, van der Meijden AP, Oosterlinck W, et al. Predicting recurrence and progression in individual
patients with stage Ta T1 bladder cancer using EORTC risk tables: a combined analysis of 2596 patients from seven EORTC trials. Eur Urol. 2006;49:466-5
28.Hall MC, Chang SS, Dalbagni G, et al. Guideline for the management on nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer (stages Ta, T1, and Tis): 2007 update. J Urol. 2007;178: 2314-2330
29.Pawinski A, Sylvester R, Kurth KH, et al. A combined analysis of European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer, and Medical Research Council randomized clinical trials for the prophylactic treatment of stage TaT1 bladder cancer. European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Genitourinary Tract Cancer Cooperative Group and the Medical Research Council Working Party on superficial bladder cancer. J Urol. 1996;156:1934-40
30.Koya MP, Simon MA, Soloway MS. Complications of intravesical therapy for urothelial cancer of the bladder. J Urol. 2006;175:2004-2010
31.Bolenz C, Cao Y, Arancibia MF, Trojan L, Alken P, Michel MS. Intravesical mitomycin C for superficial transitional cell carcinoma. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther. 2006;6: 1273-1282
32.van der Meijden AP, Sylvester RJ, Oosterlinck W, Hoeltl W, Bono AV. Maintenance Bacillus Calmette-Guerin for Ta T1 bladder tumors is not associated with increased toxicity: results from a European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer Genito-Urinary Group Phase III Trial. Eur Urol. 2003;44:429-434
33.Rischmann P, Desgrandchamps F, Malavaud B, Chopin DK. BCG intravesical instillations: recommendations for side-effects management. Eur Urol. 2000;37(suppl 1): 33-36
34.Rischmann P, Nicolas L, Malavaud B, Chopin D, Saint F, Colombel M. The effect of ofloxacin on bacillus Calmette-Guerin induced toxicity in patients with superficial bladder cancer: results of a randomized, prospective, double-blind, placebo controlled, multicenter study. J Urol. 2006;176:935-939. and the ITB01 study group
35.Sylvester RJ, Oosterlinck W, Witjes JA. The schedule and duration of intravesical chemotherapy in patients with non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer: a systematic review of the published results of randomized clinical trials. Eur Urol. 2008;53:709-719
36.Herr HW, Morales A. History of bacillus CalmetteGuerin and bladder cancer: an immunotherapy success story. J Urol. 2008;179:53-56
37.Shelley MD,Wilt TJ, Court J, Coles B, Kynaston H, Mason MD. Intravesical bacillus Calmette-Guerin is superior to mitomycin C in reducing tumour recurrence in highrisk superficial bladder cancer: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. BJU Int. 2004;93:485-490
38.Sylvester RJ, van der Meijden AP, Lamm DL. Intravesical bacillus Calmette-Guerin reduces the risk of progression in patients with superficial bladder cancer: a metaanalysis of the published results of randomized clinical trials. J Urol. 2002;168:1964-1970
39.Chang SS, Cookson MS. Radical cystectomy for bladder cancer: the case for early intervention. Urol Clin North Am. 2005;32:147-155
525
BladdEr cancEr
40.Hendricksen K,Witjes JA. Current strategies for first and second line intravesical therapy for nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer. Curr Opin Urol. 2007;17:352-357
41.Witjes JA, Kolli PS. Apaziquone for non-muscle invasive bladder cancer: a critical review. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2008;17:1085-1096
42.van Boven E, de Reijke TM, Vergunst H, et al. Phase II marker lesion study with intravesical instillation of Apaziquone for superficial bladder cancer: toxicity and marker response. J Urol. 2006;176:1349-1353
43.Colombo R, Salonia A, Da Pozzo LF, et al. Combination of intravesical chemotherapy and hyperthermia for the treatment of superficial bladder cancer: preliminary clinical experience. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2003;47:127-139
44.Di Stasi SM, Giannantoni A, Giurioli A, et al. Sequential BCG and electromotive mitomycin versus BCG alone for high-risk superficial bladder cancer: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 2006;7:43-51
45.Prout GR, Marshall VF. The prognosis with untreated bladder tumors. Cancer. 1956;9:551-558
46.Stein JP, Skinner DG. Radical cystectomy for invasive bladder cancer: long-term results of a standard procedure. World J Urol. 2006;24:296-304
47.Koppie TM, Serio AM, Vickers AJ, et al. Age-adjusted Charlson comorbidity score is associated with treatment decisions and clinical outcomes for patients undergoing radical cystectomy for bladder cancer. Cancer. 2008;112: 2384-2392
48.Stein JP, Skinner DG. The role of lymphadenectomy in high-grade invasive bladder cancer. Urol Clin North Am. 2005;32:187-197
49.Herr HW, Bochner BH, Dalbagni G, Donat SM, Reuter VE, Bajorin DF. Impact of the number of lymph nodes retrieved on outcome in patients with muscle invasive bladder cancer. J Urol. 2002;167:1295-1298
50.Haber GP, Crouzet S, Gill IS. Laparoscopic and robotic assisted radical cystectomy for bladder cancer: a critical analysis. Eur Urol. 2008;54:54-62
51.Turner WH, Studer UE. Cystectomy and urinary diversion. Semin Surg Oncol. 1997;13:350-358
52.Hautmann RE. Urinary diversion: ileal conduit to neobladder. J Urol. 2003;169:834-842
53.Soloway MS, van Poppel H, Thuroff J, et al. Muscleinvasive urothelial carcinoma of the bladder. Urology. 2007;69:3-16
54.Kuczyk M, Turkeri L, Hammerer P, Ravery V. Is there a role for bladder preserving strategies in the treatment of muscle-invasive bladder cancer? Eur Urol. 2003;44:57-64
55.Blank LECM, Koedooder K, van Os R, van de Kar M, van der Veen JH, Koning CCE. Results of bladder-conserving treatment, consisting of brachytherapy combined with limited surgery and external beam radiotherapy, for patients with solitary T1-T3 bladder tumors less than 5 cm in diameter. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007; 69:454-458
56.Holzbeierlein JM, Lopez-Corona E, Bochner BH, et al. Partial cystectomy: a contemporary review of the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center experience and recommendations for patient selection. J Urol. 2004;172:878-881
57.Herr HW, Dotan Z, Donat SM, Bajorin DF. Defining optimal therapy for muscle invasive bladder cancer. J Urol. 2007;177:437-443
58.Advanced Bladder Cancer (ABC) Meta-analysis Collaboration. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy in invasive bladder cancer: update of a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data. Eur Urol. 2005; 48:202-205
59.Advanced Bladder Cancer (ABC) Meta-analysis Collaboration. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy in invasive bladder cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2003;361:1927-1934
60.Winquist E, Kirchner TS, Segal R, Chin J, Lukka H. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: a systematic review and metaanalysis. J Urol. 2004;171:561-569
61.Sternberg CN, Collette L. What has been learned from meta-analyses of neoadjuvant and adjuvant chemotherapy in bladder cancer? BJU Int. 2006;98:487-489
62.Advanced Bladder Cancer (ABC) Meta-analysis Collaboration. Adjuvant chemotherapy in invasive bladder cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data. Eur Urol. 2005;48:189-199
63.Widmark A, Flodgren P, Damber JE, Hellsten S, CavallinStahl E. A systematic overview of radiation therapy effects in urinary bladder cancer. Acta Oncol. 2003;42: 567-581
64.Bochner BH, Montie JE, Lee CT. Follow-up strategies and management of recurrence in urologic oncology bladder cancer: invasive bladder cancer. Urol Clin North Am. 2003;30:777-789
65.Oosterlinck W, Lobel B, Jakse G, Malmstrom PU, Stockle M, Sternberg C. Guidelines on bladder cancer. Eur Urol. 2002;41:105-112