1.2. Read and recognize the following international words.

erosion, process, manual, vertical, project, construction, pressure, basic, geometry, arch, ideal, diameter

1.3. Read and translate the following word combinations.

a horizontal passageway, to create by the process of excavation, to be hand-dug, to analyze the rock or soil, to provide headings, to show the relationship between, to withstand tremendous pressure, to remain static, dead load and live load, weight of the vehicles

1.4. Read the text “Tunnel Basic” and answer the following questions.

1. What is а tunnel?

2. What are the ways to excavate а tunnel?

3. What is the difference between vertical shafts and tunnels?

4. For what purposes are shafts built in а tunnel project?

5. Is arch an ideal shape for а tunnel? Why?

6. What does dead load refer to?

7. What does live load refer to?

Tunnel Basic

A tunnel is a horizontal passageway located underground. It is relatively long and narrow. In general its length is more than twice its diameter. Of course, erosion and other forces of nature can form tunnels, but we'll talk about man-made tunnels or tunnels created by the process of excavation. There are many different ways to excavate a tunnel including manual labor, explosives, rapid heating and cooling, tunneling machinery or a combination of these methods.

Some structures may require excavation similar to tunnel excavation, but they are not actually tunnels. Shafts, for example, are often hand-dug or dug with boring equipment. But unlike tunnels, shafts are vertical and shorter. Often, shafts are built either as part of a tunnel project to analyze the rock or soil, or in tunnel construction to provide headings, or locations, from which a tunnel can be excavated.

The Figure I below shows the relationship between these underground structures in a typical mountain tunnel. The opening of the tunnel is a portal. The “roof” of the tunnel, or the top half of the tube, is the crown. The bottom half is the invert. The basic geometry of the tunnel is a continuous arch. Because tunnels must withstand tremendous pressure from all sides, the arch is an ideal shape. In the case of a tunnel, the arch simply goes all the way around.

Figure I.

Tunnel engineers, like bridge engineers, must be concerned with an area of physics known as statics. Statics describes how all forces interact to produce equilibrium (равновесие) on structures such as tunnels and bridges. The tunnel must oppose these forces with strong materials, such as masonry, steel, iron and concrete.

In order to remain static, tunnels must be able to withstand the loads placed on them. Dead load refers to the weight of the structure itself, while live load refers to the weight of the vehicles and people that move through the tunnel.

Figure II.

1.5 Look at Figure II and try to speak about forces interacting to produce equilibrium on a tunnel.

1.6 Look through the text once again, find sentences with the Infinitive and translate them.