What is the nature of Artificial Languages?

Forms used in logic, artificial intelligence, computer 1) ............... and in semantics are variously viewed as being improvements on natural language or as defective forms of 2) ................ language. It is important to 3) ................ those properties that are claimed to be 4) ............... and see what they are really doing. For example, is it possible to do better logic with the computer 5) ................. PROLOG, and what about the sorts of things that cannot be done with PROLOG but can be performed in a language like 6) .............? Are there 7) ............... upon the current approaches to artificial intelligence that result from a reliance on artificial languages? In other words: Is what is gained by the use of an 8) ................ language in proportion to what is 9) ................?

17. Work in small groups. Arrange the following words and phrases in the correct order to make the sentences. The first word is underlined.

1. the / US scientific / The dominance / of / English / decline / language / may / with / in science / leadership.

2. the / suits / particularly well / The lexicon / scientific / English / of / communications / language.

3. in / active / It is argued / ideas / development / language / an / role / the / of scientific / that / plays.

18. Mary is a 6th year student. Now she is graduating from the KPI. Mary has had an interesting life at the university. Write sentences about the things she has done. Use the Present Perfect.

1. (she / do / many / scientific projects) .........

2. (she / meet / a lot of interesting people) ............

3. (she / write / several scientific papers) .........

4. (she / get / knowledge in the professional field) .......

5. (she / travel / to many places) ...........

19. Work in pairs. Look at the table. Ask and answer questions. Use the Present Perfect Continuous. Start with phrases: How long have you been .....? I have been ... Then continue the list of questions and answers.

    №	How long	Since
    1	listen to this lecture	8:30
    2	study quantum mechanics	last term
    3	look for information about connection of science and language	9:00
    4	write a report on mechanics	July

20. Underline the correct word in bold.

1. We haven't done our homework just/yet.

2. Have you so far/ever read about Newtonian mechanics?

3. I have never/just written an essay about science and English.

4. I have been studying English since/still I was a child.

5. Linda has already/ever finished her project devoted to influence of English on science.

6. Tom has been at the conference since/for three days.

21. Put the verbs into the correct tense. Use the Present Simple and the Present Perfect tenses.

More recently David Bohm has made a thoroughgoing analysis of the role of language in science and in thought. Writing with one of us he 1) .......... (also explore) how particular world views are enfolded within the ways scientists 2) ........... (use) language and shown how fixed forms and the insensitive use of language can lead to blocks in scientific creativity. In particular, Bohm 3) .............. (make) a perceptive analysis of the famous break down in communication between Bohr and Einstein which he traced to the different values and meanings that were placed on certain words and concepts.

In his proposal for a new language, the Rheomode, Bohm has also drawn attention to what he 4) ....... (feel) to be a defect of our common language in that it enfolds what could be called a mechanistic view of the world. But this appeal for a new language 5) ......... (come) into conflict with what linguists feel to be the essential limitations of artificial and so-called improved language systems. How, therefore, is it possible to reconcile Bohm's particular views on the Rheomode within the wider context of his general philosophy and the particular views that are currently held in linguistics? Our answer 6) ....... (be) to propose an empirical investigation of the role and use of language within science and, in particular, scientific literature.

22. Find and correct the mistakes.

1. A research project is outlined which will investigate these hypothesis and, in addition, focus on such questions as the role of mathematics in science and the status of the genetic code.

2. But this can never be satisfactory since these pseudo language systems doesn't work as language.

3. The question we are investigating can, ultimate, be posed as:"Do we speak (have language) because we think, or do we think because we speak?"

4. But we can ask why also science sometimes blocks, runs into obstacles or turns around in circles. 

5. The rest of the world's scientists, too, fallen into step.

23. Choose the correct answer.

1. It is our opinion that natural language is perfectly _________.

1. adequate instrument for the expression of scientific ideas

2. instrument adequate for the expression of scientific ideas

3. adequate instrument for the scientific ideas of expression

4. instrument for the expression adequate of scientific ideas

2. Linguistics _____ the study of the use and organization of language with particular linguistic theories differing in their views on how a and b are organized, or,if you like, how they are acquired and used psychologically. 

   A has been

   B is being

   C is

   D is been

3. The current status of the English language compares _____ that of Latin in the past. 

   A at

   B from

   C with

   D into

4. If the pattern ____ the previous language trends, we still have  about 100 years before a new language dominates the world. 

   A will follow

   B would follow

   C followed

   D follows

5. She _____ an article about the role of English in science all morning.

   A has written

   B has been writing

   C writes

   D wrote

6. We ________ the project devoted to scientific discoveries of 20th century.

A have been finishing

B have finished

C finish

D are finishing

24. Fill in the where necessary.

Modern English, sometimes described as 1) ____ first global lingua franca, is the dominant language or in some instances even 2) _____ required international language of 3) _____ communications, science, information technology, business, seafaring, aviation, entertainment, radio and diplomacy. Its spread beyond 4) _____ British Isles began with 5) _____ growth of 6) _____ British Empire, and by the late 19th century its reach was truly global. Following British colonisationfrom 7) ____ 16th to 19th centuries, it became the dominant language in 8) _____ United States, 9) ___ Canada, 10) _____ Australia and 11) _____ New Zealand. 12) _____ growing economic and cultural influence of the US and its status as a global superpower since 13) ____ World War II have significantly accelerated the language's spread across the planet. 14) _____ English replaced German as the dominant language of science Nobel Prize laureates during 15) ____ second half of 16) ____ 20th century. English equalled and may have surpassed 17) ____ French as the dominant language of diplomacy during the last half of 18) ____ 19th century.

25. Translate into English.

1. Сьогодні англійська є мовою глобальної економіки та бізнесового середовища. 

2. Вчені, які хотіли зрозуміти квантову механіку у 1920 роках, вимушені були вивчати німецьку мову.

3. Студенти закінчують навчання, беруть участь у конференціях з колегами з інших країн і виявляють власну мовну некомпетентність.

4. Ми більше не турбуємось з приводу вивчення іншої мови.

5. До Великої Вітчизняної війни більшість наукових робіт вчені друкували німецькою, французською або англійською.

6. Поширення англійської світом пов’язане з політичним та економічним впливом англомовних націй.

7. Володіти англійською означає те ж саме, що вміти користуватися комп’ютером, мобільним телефоном і керувати машиною.

8. Англійська мова є мовою міжнародного спілкування. 

26. Edit the English translation (B).

1. Однією з міжнародних мов є англійська. Більше того, англійська є мовою міжнаціонального спілкування для всього людства.

Значення англійської мови в сучасному світі важко переоцінити. Адже не можна ж не зважати на вибір більше 1 мільярда людей, які її використовують. І якщо для половини з них вона є рідною, то близько 600 мільйонів вибрали саме її як іноземну. Безумовно, діапазон поширення англійської мови в сучасному світі настільки великий, що ця мова не може бути ідентичною у різних областях. Незважаючи на різноманітні її варіанти і наявність специфічних особливостей для кожної національності, англійська мова залишається лідером на нашій земній кулі.

2. One of the international language is English. Moreover, English is the international language for all mankind.

The value of English in the modern world can not be overemphasized. It is impossible not to consider the choice of more than 1 billion people that use it. And if half of them she is their mother, then about 600 million chose it as foreign. Clearly, the range spread of English in the modern world is so great that this language may not be identical in different areas. Despite the variety of options and the availability of specific features for each nationality, English remains the leader on our globe.

27. Edit the Ukrainian translation (B).

1. "Light and matter are both single entities, and the apparent duality arises in the limitations of our language. It is not surprising that our language should be incapable of describing the processes occurring within the atoms, for, as has been remarked, it was invented to describe the experiences of daily life, and these consist only of processes involving exceedingly large numbers of atoms. Furthermore, it is very difficult to modify our language so that it will be able to describe these atomic processes, for words can only describe things of which we can form mental pictures, and this ability, too, is a result of daily experience. Fortunately, mathematics is not subject to this limitation, and it has been possible to invent a mathematical scheme − the quantum theory − which seems entirely adequate for the treatment of atomic processes; for visualisation, however, we must content ourselves with two incomplete analogies − the wave picture and the corpuscular picture." Werner Heisenberg

2. "Світло і матерія, як окремих компаній, а також очевидною подвійність виникає обмеженість нашої мови. Це не дивно, що наша мова має бути нездатним опису процесів, що відбуваються всередині атомів, бо, як уже зазначалося, він був винайдений, щоб описати досвід повсякденного життя, і вони складаються тільки з процесів надзвичайно великого числа атомів. Крім того, дуже важко змінити нашу мову, так що він зможе описати ці атомні процеси, слова не можуть описати тільки те, про що ми можемо створити уявні картини, і ця здатність, теж є результатом повсякденного досвіду. На щастя, математика не підлягає це обмеження, і це вдалося придумати математичну схему − квантова теорія − що видається цілком адекватною для лікування атомних процесів, для візуалізації, проте, ми повинні обмежитися двома неповними аналогів − хвильову картину і корпускулярні картини." Вернер Гейзенберг

SPEAKING

28. You argue with your friends that English is an imperial language and it will be dominant next 10 years. Your friends don't agree with you. Give your reasons.

29. Work in small groups. Match the phrases with their Ukrainian equivalents. Look at the phrases and explain in what context the word "language" can be used.

    1	a technical language	a	жива мова
    2	an artificial language	b	міжнародна мова
    3	a programming language	c	універсальна мова
    4	a world language	d	державна мова
    5	a living language	e	штучна мова
    6	a foreign language	f	офіційна мова
    7	a dead/an extinct language	g	аналітична мова
    8	a universal language	h	спеціальна мова
    9	a national language	i	мертва мова
    10	an analytic language	j	іноземна мова
    11	a formal language	k	комп'ютерна мова

30. Can Esperanto be used for scientific purposes? Give your reasons.

31. Work in small groups. The students of your group have found out some information about the different roles of German, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese, Hebrew in various times (see Further Reading, UNIT 2, "Later Lingua Franca"). Share this information with your fellowmates.

32. You are a professor at Oxford University. The topic of your lecture is: "The Role of English in Science". Be ready to talk about it. Use information from the text "Imperial English: The Language of Science" and "Language and Science" (see Further Reading, UNIT 2).

33. Do you know about most frequently viewed questions related to English? Find such questions on the Internet or in Further Reading to Unit 2. Share this information with your fellowmates.

34. Work in small groups. You need to prepare some information about five events that shaped the history of English. Use the Internet resources. Then tell your groupmates about the results of your research.

LISTENING

35. You are going to listen to some information "Lingua Franca: Many Languages for Many Different Roles." Then say if the following statements are true or false.

1. The origin of "lingua franca" is Italian.

2. Greek was the first lingua franca.

3. When the Roman Empire conquered the world only Latin dominated.

4. The official language of the Vatican was Greek.

5. Those people who traded with the Islamic Empire used Arabic.

6. The scientists should represent their papers in English for international audience.

1	2	3	4	5	6

36. Complete the sentences.

1. The definition of lingua franca is a common language used by people ........

2. Before the rise of Rome, Greek was .........

3. Alexander conquered most of ............

4. Monasteries had .............. scrolls.

5. Arabic is also ..................

37. Try to retell the text.

WRITING

38. Work in small groups. Create a crossword for your fellowmates using information from the text "Imperial English: The Language of Science".

39. You've found some information "Language and Science". Read this information and write your own comments (see Further Reading, UNIT 2).

40. Fill in the gaps with one or two words.

1. English is a widely distributed language originating in .........

2. English is currently the primary language of several .............

3. It is extensively used as a second language and as an ........ language in many other countries.

4. English is the most widely taught and understood language in the world, and sometimes is described as a ....... .........

5. Although Modern Standard Chinese has more mother-tongue speakers (approximately 700 million), .......... is unquestionably used by more people as a second or foreign language, putting the total number of English-......... worldwide at well over one billion.

6. An estimated 354 million people speak English as their first ........ Estimates about second language speakers of English vary greatly between 150 million and 1.5 .........

7. It has been ........... of the official languages of the United Nations since its founding in 1945.

PROBLEM-SOLVING

41. Test yourself. Do the English Language Quiz (see Problem-Solving, UNIT 2).