The principal elements of the nature of science: dispelling the myths

William F. McComas

MYTH 1:Experiments are the principal route to scientific knowledge

Throughout their school science careers, students are encouraged to associate science with experimentation. Virtually all hands-on experiences that students have in science class are called experiments even if they would more accurately be labeled as technical procedures, explorations or activities. True experiments involve carefully orchestrated procedures accompanied by control and test groups. 1 ____. Of course, true experimentation is a useful tool in science, but is not the sole route to knowledge.

Many noteworthy scientists have used non-experimental techniques to advance knowledge. In fact, in a number of science disciplines, true experimentation is not possible because of the inability to control variables. Many fundamental discoveries in astronomy are based on extensive observations rather than experiments. 2 ___.

MYTH 2: Science and technology are identical

A common misconception is the idea that science and technology are the same. In fact, many believe that television, rockets, computers and even refrigerators are science, but one of the hallmarks of science is that it is not necessarily practical while refrigerators certainly are. 3 ___ .

Today, most investigators are working on problems that are at least in part directed from outside their laboratories. Scientists typically blend the quest of pure science in order to solve a technology challenge. In many ways the distinction between pure and applied science is not crucial, but it is interesting to explore what motivates scientists to work on their problems. Few scientists have the luxury to pursue any goal they choose since most scientific work is funded by organizations with an agenda. 4 ____ .

MYTH 3: Science is a solitary pursuit

Most would likely accept the premise that science builds on prior work, but that essentially great scientific discoveries are made by great scientists. Even the Nobel prizes recognize the achievements of individual scientists rather than research teams. Therefore, science must be a solitary and individual pursuit. Sociologists of science who study scientists at work have shown that only rarely does a scientific idea arise in the mind of a lone individual which is then validated by that individual alone and accepted by the scientific community. The process is much more like a negotiation than the revelation of truth. 5 _____ . Many problems in science are simply too complex for a sole individual to pursue alone due to constraints of time, intellectual capital and financing.

9. Look through the list of words and phrases and check if you know their Ukrainian equivalents. Use the Mini-Dictionary (UNIT 5) if necessary.

   to be encouraged	to associate science with experimentation
   procedures, explorations, activities	accompanied by
   all hands-on experiences	to be labeled
   to orchestrate	a cause and effect relationship
   to involve	establishment
   noteworthy scientists	the inability to control variables
   extensive	to solve a technology challenge
   observational evidence	to derive
   to contribute	to perform experiments
   misconception	the pursuit of knowledge
   exploitation	applied science
   to blend	the quest of pure science
   to explore	to pursue any goal
   premise	a solitary pursuit
   constraints of time	the revelation of truth

10. Explain the meaning of the words and phrases.

observations, orchestrated procedures, applied science, inability, practical, detailed, a soul route, advance, fundamental, all hands-on experiences, noteworthy scientists, constraints of time, solitary

11. Cross the odd word out.

1. associate, link, relate, assuage;

2. label, labour, identify, name;

3. ordain, orchestrate, arrange, set up;

4. extensive, wide, thorough, exterior;

5. investigators, researcher, producer,explorer.

12. Match the words with their definitions.

    1	experiment	a	is something brought about by a cause or agent; a result
    2	effect	b	is the process of learning something that was not known before, or of findings someone that was missing or hidden
    3	observation	c	is a process or series of acts especially of a practical or mechanical nature involved in a particular form of work
    4	discovery	d	is a test under controlled conditions that is made to demonstrate a known truth, examine the validity of a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy of something previously untried
    5	procedure	e	is the act of noting and recording something
    6	to perform	f	to investigate systematically; examine
    7	to contribute	g	to give or supply in common with others
    8	to explore	h	the act of employing to the greatest possible advantage
    9	exploitation	i	cause (something) to be mixed with (something else)
    10	to blend	j	the act of disclosing
    11	revelation	k	to begin and carry through to completion

13. Find 10 words from the table above.

e	x	p	e	r	i	m	e	n	t	r	p
x	a	q	x	c	t	z	x	y	k	h	r
p	w	z	p	e	r	f	o	r	m	g	o
l	w	s	l	q	g	k	f	z	i	j	c
o	v	c	o	n	t	r	i	b	u	t	e
r	q	d	i	s	c	o	v	e	r	y	d
e	l	m	t	v	a	w	r	f	q	k	u
m	n	k	a	t	j	g	i	f	e	t	r
t	o	e	t	f	u	p	q	e	m	n	e
r	y	w	i	d	k	i	r	c	q	s	f
k	j	h	o	m	l	y	s	t	b	a	i
b	l	e	n	d	t	q	i	k	w	n	v
w	x	r	e	v	e	l	a	t	i	o	n

14. Fill in the words from the list below. Use each word only once. Translate the collocations into Ukrainian.

control, explorations, knowledge, misconception, pursue, motivate, perform, blend, noteworthy, extensive

1	...... observations	6	many ....... scientists
2	to ...... scientists	7	............ and test groups
3	technical procedures, ........ or activities	8	to ......... experiments
4	a common ........	9	the pursuit of .......
5	to ....... the quest of pure science	10	to ......... any goal

15. Arrange the following words according to

• similar meaning: exploitation, objective, accurately, procedure, properly, proof, goal, sole, evidence, solitary, usage, process;

• opposite meaning: noncrucial, discourage, disorder, insignificant, concept, crucial, damage, noteworthy, improve, order, encourage, misconception.

16. Match the words and phrases with their Ukrainian equivalents.

    1	accurately	a	переслідувати будь-які цілі
    2	to pursue any goal	b	неможливість контролювати
    3	to fund	c	точно
    4	the inability to control	d	весь практичний досвід
    5	all hands-on experiences	e	фінансувати
    6	misconception	f	супроводити
    7	to accompany	g	здійснювати цілі
    8	the quest of pure science	h	прикладна наука
    9	to pursue any goal	i	неправильне уявлення
    10	applied science	j	пошук чистої науки

17. Fill each gap with the appropriate word from the list below.

scientists, proof, discovery, scientific, considered, inevitable, frequently, science, criticize

First, even if individuals understand that 1) ............... laws are equal in importance to theories, they rarely appreciate that all knowledge in science is tentative, occasionally seeing 2) “..............” in science equal to proof in mathematics. The issue of tentativeness is part of the self-correcting aspect of science but one that those who fault science 3) ................. ignore. Creationists, for instance, are quick to 4) ........... science by pointing to the 5) .................. of several teeth found in Nebraska early in this century (Gould, 1991). Initially, these teeth were 6) ................. to have come from a primitive human, but were later found to be those of an extinct pig. 7) .............. made both the initial identification and the later revision, but those who would like to fault 8) ............... only discuss the error, while rarely mentioning the 9) ............... correction.

18. Choose the correct answer.

1. However, a __________ of science is that it is subject to revision when new information is presented.

   A badge

   B hallmark

   C device

   D index

2. Accumulated _________ can provide support, validation and substantiation for a law or theory, but will never prove those laws and theories to be true.

   A evidence

   B support

   C view

   D evolution

3. The problem of induction argues against proof in science, but there is another element of this myth worth _____________.

   A travelling

   B exploiting

   C using

   D exploring

4. They are careful in the analysis of evidence and in the ________ applied to arrive at conclusions.

   A courses

   B transactions

   C activities

   D procedures

5. Another aspect of the inability of scientists to be objective is found in theory-laden _________, a psychological notion.

A obscurity

B occasion

C observation

D offence

19. Work in small groups. Match 1-5 with a-e to make sentences.

    1	The result of the lack of oversight has recently put	a	report valid, but negative results.
    2	An interesting corollary to this myth is that scientists rarely	b	about everything I saw. Darwin
    3	Humans are the producers of new knowledge and	c	the truth.
    4	Nothing could be farther from	d	science itself under suspicion.
    5	I could not help making hypotheses	e	also the arbiters of what counts as new knowledge.

20. Fill in the correct word derived from the word in bold.

Another aspect of this myth stems from the 1) _________ (realize) that there are several basic kinds of laws – deterministic and probabilistic. Although both types of laws are as tentative as any 2) ______ (science) knowledge, the laws of the physical sciences are typically deterministic in that cause and effect are more securely linked while the laws in biology usually have a probability factor associated. In the life sciences it is typical to see limitations placed on the 3) ________ (apply) of laws. For example, Mendel’s laws of 4) _______ (inherit) work only with single gene pairs and not even with all such pairs. This issue has called some to question if there are really 5) _______ (law) in biology. My response would be that there are laws in the life sciences, but the rules for their application are somewhat distinct from those 6) ________ (apply) in the physical sciences.

21. Underline the correct item.

1. Andy had been thinking/had thought about his mathematical problem all day.

2. The scientists hadn't informed/weren't informing about their discovery for a long time.

3. Two years ago they suggested that this could be done, as had been suggested/had been suggesting in the same year by the Austrian group of researchers.

4. We had repeated/repeated the experiment by the first of May.

5. They had been discussing/had discussed about the difference between science and technology for some minutes when a teacher came.

22. Choose the correct answer.

1. The general success of the scientific endeavor _______ that its products must be valid.

   A suggests

   B is suggested

   C suggested

   D was suggested

2. Philosophers of science ________ it useful to refer to the work of Karl Popper and his principle of falsifiability to provide an operational definition of what counts as science.

   A had found

   B found

   C was found

   D have found

3. In 1968 Popper ________ that only those ideas that are potentially falsifiable are scientific ideas.

   A had suggested

   B has suggested

   C suggested

   D was suggesting

4. Now the scientists ___________ experiments in the field of quantum physics.

   A is doing

   B are doing

   C do

   D does

5. The seminars were extremely interesting and it was obvious that all the speakers ___________ their material very thoroughly.

   A had prepared

   B was prepared

   C have prepared

   D were prepared

6. Scientists __________ simply not ready to embrace a notion so contrary to the traditional teachings of their discipline.

   A be

   B is

   C have

   D were

7. They _______ hard all morning, so they were tired.

   A had been studying

   B were studying

   C studied

   D were studied

8. We __________ our project at 9 o'clock yesterday.

   A had done

   B were doing

   C was doing

   D are doing

9. Tim __________ his experiments when his co-workers came to the laboratory.

   A had finished

   B finished

   C was finished

   D had been finishing

10. Jason ______ about his mathematical problem for an hour before he solved it.

A thought

B had thought

C had been thinking

D was thinking

23. Read the sentences. If a sentence is correct, put a tick. If it has a word which should not be there, write it in the space provided.

    1	The term hypothesis has at least three definitions, and for that of reason, should be abandoned and replaced, or at least used with caution.
    2	For instance, when Newton been said that he framed no hypothesis as to the cause of gravity he was saying that he had no speculation about an explanation of why the law of gravity operates as it does.
    3	In this case, for Newton used the term hypothesis to represent an immature theory.
    4	In general, a science involves a pursuit of knowledge covering general truths or the operations of fundamental laws.
    5	Galileo also began his studies on motion in, which he pursued steadily for the next two decades.
    6	In 1588 Galileo applied for the chair of mathematics at the University of Bologna but was unsuccessful.
    7	By 1609 a Galileo had determined that the distance fallen by a body is proportional to the square of the elapsed time and that the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola.

24. Fill in a, the where necessary.

1. "...... new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see ...... light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and ..... new generation grows up that is familiar with it." Max Planck

2. "..... goal of ..... science and engineering is to build better mousetraps. ...... goal of ...... nature is to build better mice." Unknown

3. "....... man with a new idea is ...... crank until he succeeds." M. Twain

25. Edit the Ukrainian translation (B).

1. "Humanity needs practical men, who get the most out of their work, and, without forgetting the general good, safeguard their own interests. But humanity also needs dreamers, for whom the disinterested development of an enterprise is so captivating that it becomes impossible for them to devote their care to their own material profit.

Without doubt, these dreamers do not deserve wealth, because they do not desire it. Even so, a well-organized society should assure to such workers the efficient means of accomplishing their task, in a life freed from material care and freely consecrated to research." Marie Curie

2. "Людство потребує практичні люди, які отримують максимальну віддачу від їхньої роботи, і, не забуваючи загального блага, захисту їх власних інтересів. Але людство також потребує мрійники, для яких безкорислива розвитку підприємства так захоплююче, що стає неможливим для них,щоб присвятити свою допомогу в їх власного прибутку матеріалу.

Без сумніву, ці мрійники не заслуговують багатства, тому що вони не бажають цього. Тим не менш, організоване суспільство має забезпечити, щоб такі працівники ефективним засобом досягнення своїх завдань, в житті звільнені від матеріальної допомоги та вільно присвячений дослідженням." Марія Кюрі

26. Translate into English.

1. Деякі люди думають, що наука і техніка − це одне й теж саме.

2. Наука асоціюється з експериментами.

3. Технологія експерименту охоплює взаємопов’язану сукупність методів та процедур збору, обробки, інтерпретації, аналізу даних, встановлення надійності та валідності отриманих висновків, а також застосування отриманих результатів у практиці.

4. Для проведення експерименту науковці відбирають контрольні і експериментальні групи.

5. Багато фундаментальних відкриттів основані на спостереженнях, а не на експериментах.

SPEAKING

27. You are a scientist and you are going to clarify information about:

• importance of experiments in science;

• existance of non-experimental techniques;

• difference between science and technology;

• science as a solitary pursuit.

Use information from the text "The Principal Elements of the Nature of Science: Dispelling the Myths".

28. Work in pairs. You are a reporter interviewing a famous scientist. Think about questions that you would like to ask. Then role play.

a) Galileo Galilei

b) Isaac Newton

с) Albert Einstein

d) Sergei Korolev

29. You have received the task to make an open lecture entitled "Science in Society". What problems can you discuss in it?

30. Explain the suggested scientific phenomena. What other phenomena do you know? Can you explain them?

a) Lightning b) Water cycle

c) Rainbow d) Photosynthesis