The dawn of atomic physics
A
s
the 19th
century drew near its close, physicists felt that they had completed
their task. At the end of the 19th
century scientists said that it was probable that all the great
discoveries in the field of physics had been made. The physicist of
the future, they said, would have nothing to do but repeat the
experiments of the past.
And then, two years later, in December 1895, Prof. Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen announced his discovery of X-rays. He published photographs of the bones of his hand, and of keys and coins photographed through the leather pocketbook which contained them. A new discovery had been made! Roentgen had found some mysterious ray which penetrated opaque objects as easily as sunlight penetrated windowsglass. There was nothing in the nineteenth century physics to explain this phenomenon. It was soon evident that the work of the physicist, far from being at the end, was only at its beginning.
The discovery of X-rays ended the self-satisfaction on the nineteenth century physicists and started research works all over the world on new lines of works.
A year later − in 1896 − in Paris, Antoine Henri Becquerel made his discovery of the mysterious rays given off by uranium salts. Marie Curie asked his permission to go on with the experiments. Her desire was to find if any substances besides the salts of uranium gave off these rays. After many experiments she found that the salt of thorium did so. But the most amazing discovery she made was the fact that pitchblende, the ore from which uranium is obtained, gave off rays four times as strong as those of pure uranium.
It was apparent to Becquerel, Marie and Pierre that this could mean only one thing. The pitchblende must contain some unknown chemical element which was far richer in these mysterious rays than was uranium. The Curies began the fascinating task of finding this unknown element. The Austrian government presented them with a ton of pitchblende. It was necessary to remove one known substance after another from the pitchblende, carefully conserving the residue for further analysis.
The first result of the work was the discovery of a substance giving off "Becquerel rays", as the world of science began to call, the mysterious rays. Marie Curie named it "polonium" in honour of her native Poland. But polonium was not rich enough in the rays to be the end of the search.
In 1898, the search came to a triumphant conclusion. From the ton of pitchblende, the Curies had obtained a fraction of a grain of a new element which was two and a half million times as rich in "Becquerel rays" as was uranium. They named this new substance “radium”. It possessed many interesting properties. It liberated heat, electrified the air in its immediate neighbourhood, caused many substances to become phosphorescent when brought near it, and possessed the power of killing bacteria and other minute organisms. The world of physics was astonished. Three great discoveries in the tree years, each one more astonishing than the other – X-rays in 1895, the “Becquerel rays” in 1896 and radium in 1898. Those were exciting days in the field of physics.
Look through the list of words and phrases and check if you know their Ukrainian equivalent. Use the Mini-Dictionary (UNIT 9) if necessary.
dawn
mysterious rays
to penetrate
opaque objects
thorium
evident
to conserve residue
self-satisfaction
pitchblende
to give off
a triumphant
to go on (with the experiments)
bacterium
pure
minute
fascinating
to draw near
to obtain
to announce
neighbourhood
to astonish
radium
Explain the meaning of the words and phrases.
minute organisms, mysterious, to go on, to announce, pure, to obtain a fraction, a triumphant conclusion, to penetrate, to give off, residue
Match the words with their definitions.
1
bacterium
a
a blackish mineral that is a type of uraninite and occurs in veins, frequently associated with silver: the principal source of uranium and radium
2
residue
b
to enter into and permeate
3
pitchblende
c
to make known publicly
4
opaque
d
easily seen or understood; obvious
5
to penetrate
e
exceptionally small; tiny
6
evident
f
any of a large group of one-celled organisms that lack a cell nucleus, reproduce by fission or by forming spores, and in some cases cause disease
7
fraction
g
impenetrable by light; neither transparent nor translucent
8
to announce
h
a small part; a bit
9
minute
i
the remainder of something after removal of parts or a part
Find 7 words from the table above.
p
m
w
c
i
r
t
m
n
a
j
a
i
b
a
c
t
e
r
i
u
m
h
t
t
w
z
q
s
s
h
r
q
i
z
f
c
h
r
d
n
i
z
m
k
n
k
r
h
l
x
k
m
d
s
t
x
u
l
a
b
o
p
a
q
u
e
w
w
t
x
c
l
f
y
l
n
e
v
i
d
e
n
t
e
r
e
e
o
z
n
y
z
p
u
i
n
e
a
i
o
w
s
t
e
f
j
o
d
k
k
o
p
q
k
q
z
c
q
n
e
r
n
a
g
d
w
x
f
e
g
j
Fill in the word from the list below. Use each word only once. Translate the collocations into Ukrainian.
pocketbook, field, thorium, liberate, give off, phenomenon, chemical, experiments, phosphorescent, rays
|
1 |
the ....... of physics |
6 |
to ...... the rays |
|
2 |
to repeat the ..... |
7 |
the salt of ...... |
|
3 |
the leather ........ |
8 |
to become ...... |
|
4 |
to explain this ..... |
9 |
to ........ heat |
|
5 |
the mysterious ...... |
10 |
...... element |
Find the words in the texts to which the following ones are the synonyms. The first letter is given to make the task easier.
conclude, accomplish (c); do again (r); make public, declare (a); pervade (p); non-transperent (o); obvious, clear (e); consent, assent (p); emit (g); astonishing (a); gain (o); eject (r)
Match the words and phrases with their Ukrainian equivalents.
1
pitchblende
a
виділяти
2
self-satisfaction
b
непрозорий
3
to give off
c
дрібний
4
neighbourhood
d
частинка
5
opaque
e
наближатися
6
fraction
f
уранова смолка
7
residue
g
сусідство
8
minute
h
осад
9
to draw near
i
самозадоволення
Translate the following phrases from the text into Ukrainian.
photographed through the leather pocketbook;
sunlight penetrated windowglass;
it was soon evident that …
far from being at the end;
new lines of work;
the ore from which uranium is obtained;
four times as strong as those;
in honour of her native Poland;
came to a triumphant conclusion;
a fraction of a grain.
Fill in the proper word from the list below.
abundance, ores, density, uranium, element, melting, discovered, properties, gives off, radiation, radium, radioactivity, luminescent, oxygen, pitchblende, hydrogen
Radium is a radioactive 1) ________ in Group 2 (IIA) and Row 7 of the periodic table. Radium was 2) ______ in by Marie Curie and her husband, Pierre Curie. It was found in an ore of 3) ______ called pitchblende.
Radium is 4) ________, meaning it gives off radiation that can be seen in the dark. Because of its 5) ______, however, it has relatively few uses.
Radium is a brilliant white metal with a 6) _____ point of 700°C (1,300°F) and a boiling point of 1,737°C (3,159°F). Its 7) ______ is 5.5 grams per cubic centimeter.
Radium combines with most non-metals, including 8) ______, fluorine, chlorine, and nitrogen. It also reacts with acids with the formation of 9) _______ gas. Radium's chemical 10) ______ are of much less interest than its 11) _________, however.
The amount of 12) _____ in the Earth's crust is very small. Its 13) ______ has been estimated to be about 0.0000001 parts per million. It occurs not only in 14) ______, but in all 15) _____ that contain uranium. It is formed when uranium 16) ______ radiation and breaks down.
Fill the cells in the table with the words derived from the given ones.
Verb
Noun
Adjective
.................
discovery
________
.................
................
penetrating, ................
_______
...............
mysterious
.................
search, ............, searching
searching
liberate
............., liberator
................
..................
..............., possessor
possessed, ..............
triumph
.............
..............., triumphal
Fill in the blanks with the words from the table above. You won’t need all the words.
Cosmic ray ........... solved?
The flake type graphite is found to ............ extremely low resistivity to electrical conductance.
Neils Bohr went to England to study with J.J. Thomson, who had ........... the electron in 1897.
The ATLAS experiment has continued to record data and to refine the analyses in the ............ for the Higgs boson and many other exciting signatures of new physics.
According to classical physics, a particle of energy E less than the height
of a barrier could not .............
− the region inside the barrier is classically forbidden.Most physicists in the early years of the twentieth century were engrossed by the electron, such a new and fascinating ................ .
In 1899−1900, physicists Ernest Rutherford and Paul Villard separated radiation into three types: alpha, beta, and gamma, based on ............ of objects and ability to cause ionization.
When they were discovered, the "X" stood for "unknown," because they were so ................. .
Сhoose the proper word from the pairs in bold. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
Molecules all vary/very in size depending upon the number and size of the atoms which compose them.
Complex/complicated molecules, like of starch, contain 2,500 atoms.
Not all the atoms weight/weigh the same amount.
Hydrogen, the gas used in toy balloons, is very easy/light.
Uranium, the ore used for atomic energy production, is the heaviest/hardest.
The practical uses of nuclear energy are based on a knowledge of the structure of material/matter.
Physicists/physicians realize that far more remains to be found out then has already been discovered.
Match the nouns 1-6 to the adjectives a-f that describe them.
mechanics
modern, developed, advanced
molecules
simple, complex, large
physics
statistical, classical, quantum
technology
great, remarkable, outstanding
scientist
nuclear, fundamental, applied
phenomena
natural, discovered, unknown
Work in small groups. Match 1-5 with a-e to make sentences.
In fact, no more than about two kilograms (five pounds) of
a
the composition of metals, plastics, and other materials.
The radiation that radium gives off
b
not well explored by theorists.
Radiation given off by radium is sometimes used also to study
c
radium is made each year.
Physics covers a wide range of phenomena,
d
low-temperature collision dynamics and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics.
Feynman noted that experimentalists may seek areas which are
e
from elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos and electrons) to the largest superclusters of galaxies.
Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions,
f
can kill living cells.
Put the words and phrases in the correct order to make sentences. The first word is underlined.
called / Physics / also / fundamental / the / science / is.
to / laws / discover /aims / Physics / universal.
the / mathematics / in physics / application / is / Mathematical / of / physics
" vice versa / imprecise / The more / the / precise / of position, / the more / measurement / the / of momentum, / measurement / and." Werner Heisenberg
"words / The reality / never / put / can / into / is / reality / we / itself." Werner Heisenberg
"electron /observations, / Reality / is / the / in / the / not / in." Werner Heisenberg
Analyse the examples and make the sentences combining the parts of the sentences. Translate your sentences.
Examples: If he
willcomes in time, we will finish our work.I will not make any mistakes, when you don’t disturb me.
If ...
come to see us
are patient
don’t learn this material
invent a time machine
buy a dictionary
we will
not help you
take it to use
be pleased
join you for travelling
ask for your advice
Complete the sentences. Mind the rule of Conditional sentences.
He is a lazy fellow and doesn’t do his best. If …
Their English is poor. They have made a lot of mistakes. If …
She won’t pass her exam in physics because she misses classes. If …
The scientists are working in the field of quantum physics. Now they are at the lab. If …
Choose the correct answer.
Let’s meet in the library. I … there from 5 to 7 p. m.
a) will have worked b) will be working c) will work
We promise we … never … it again.
a) will be doing b) will do c) will have done
I … when to come if you don’t ring me up.
a) will not be knowing b) won’t know c) won’t have known
Our groupmate … his lesson if you come at 11.
a) will be taken b) will have taken c) will take
As soon as he comes we … dinner.
a) will have b) shall be having c) will have had
When … you … ready?
a) will be b) will be being c) will have been
What … they … since morning?
a) will be writing b) will write c) will have written
I hope, she … angry if I tell her the truth .
a) won’t be b) won’t be being c) won’t have been
It’s no use calling on her, she … for her exams.
a) will prepare b) will be preparing c) will have prepared
By six o’clock I … my translation.
a) will finish b) will be finishing c) will have finished
They … a long way before they reach our place.
a) will have walked b) will walk c) will be walking
Don’t disappoint me, I … for you at 7 sharp.
a) will wait b) will be waiting c) will have waited
Translate into English paying attention to the present, past and future tenses.
Студент сказав, що всі важливі відкриття в галузі фізики вже зроблені. Викладач запевнив, що студент помиляється.
Вчений проводив дослідження з ранку до вечора, але бажаних результатів не одержав.
Відкриття нового елемента зробило Кюрі відомими.
Радій має багато властивостей. Що ви знаєте про це?
Коли ми готувались до іспитів, зайшов наш викладач та сказав, що іспит з фізики відбудеться у вівторок. А іспит з алгебри, який ми вже склали був успішний для всіх.
Маю надію, що до кінця травня студенти нашої групи вже здадуть реферати.
Вам вже вдалося зробити все, що ви планували? Коли ви закінчили роботу?
Скільки часу ця група фізиків витратила на дослідження?
Не турбуй нікого. Бачиш, студенти обговорюють важливі питання.
Завтра професор нашої кафедри відбуває на міжнародну конференцію. Він одержав запрошення ще пів року тому.
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense.
We ______ (to study) the properties of this material before we began to use it.
Temperature changes ______ (to affect) nearly all properties of matter.
Pierre and Marie Curie _________ (to discover) radium in 1898.
Electromagnetic waves _________ (to travel) with the velocity of light.
Here you are at last! I _________ (to look) for you.
We (to start) our experiment next week if everything ___ (to go on) well.
Do you realize what you ________ (to say).
For four years this expert _______ (to work) at his subject.
Changes continually ____ (to take place) in the properties of bodies around us.
His family ______ (to stay) in the village while Nick (to take) his exams.
Note the direction in which the conductor _______ (to move) in the magnetic field at this moment.
How long you ____________ (to study) at the university?
By the end of the week we ______ (to spend) all our money .But by that time I hope, I _______ (to find) a job.
My watch stopped as I _______ (not to wind up) it.
You ______ (to read) anything about nuclear physics?
They ______ (to test) the new device this week. The test was successful.
When night ______ (to come) some of physicists _______ (to stop) their research in the laboratory, but the others still ____ (to continue) working over the experiments.
He ______ (to publish) the results of his working out that he ______ (to carry out) for many years.
When we _____ (to arrive) at the university, the classes ______ (not to begin) yet. The students _______ (to hurry) to take their places, when the professor _______ (to come in).
Fill in the gaps with
a suitable preposition and translate the following sentences into Ukrainian.
The physicists … the future will have to repeat the experiments … the past.
Roentgen published photos … the bones … his hand and … keys. photographed … the pocketbook.
Pitchblende is the ore … which uranium is obtained.
“Polonium” was called … honour … M.Curie’s native Poland.
Polonium wasn’t rich enough … the rays to be the end … the search.
… 1898, the search came … a conclusion.
Those were exciting days … the field … physics.
a suitable preposition from the list.
from, on, to (2), in (2), before, by (2), of (6), according to
"The interest of research workers has frequently been focused 1) .... the phenomenon 2) .... regularly shaped crystals suddenly forming 3) ... a liquid, e.g. a supersaturated salt solution. 4) .... the atomic theory the forming force 5) ... this process is to a certain extent the symmetry characteristic 6) .... the solution 7) .... Schrödinger's wave equation, and to that extent crystallization is explained 8) ... the atomic theory. Nevertheless this process retains a statistical and − one might almost say − historical element which cannot be further reduced:even when the state 9) .... the liquid is completely known 10) .... crystallization, the shape 11) .... the crystal is not determined 12) .... the laws 13) .... quantum mechanics. The formation 14) ... regular shapes is just far more probable than that of a shapeless lump. But the ultimate shape owes its genesis partly 15) ... an element of chance which 16) .... principle cannot be analysed further." Werner Heisenberg
Fill in a, the where necessary.
"In ___ Einstein's theory of ___relativity the observer is ___man who sets out in quest of truth armed with ____ measuring-rod. In ____ quantum theory he sets out with ____ sieve." Sir Arthur Eddington
"_____ gravitation cannot be held responsible for people falling in love." Albert Einstein
"In questions of ____ science, the authority of a thousand is not worth ____ humble reasoning of _____ single individual." Galileo Galilei
Edit the Ukrainian translation (B).
"The physicist may be satisfied when he has the mathematical scheme and knows how to use for the interpretation of the experiments. But he has to speak about his results also to non-physicists who will not be satisfied unless some explanation is given in plain language. Even for the physicist the description in plain language will be the criterion of the degree of understanding that has been reached." Werner Heisenberg
"Фізик може бути задоволено, якщо у нього є математичні схеми і знає, як використовувати для інтерпретації експериментів. Але він повинен говорити про його результати і не-фізиків, які не будуть задоволені, якщо якесь пояснення дається на простому мовою. Навіть для фізиків опис на простій мові буде критерієм ступеня розуміння того, що було досягнуто." Вернер Гейзенберг
S
PEAKING