Как писать эссе

«Эссе» - разновидность очерка, в котором главную роль играет не воспроизведение факта, а изображение впечатлений, раздумий, ассоциаций". Сочинение в жанре «эссе» требует от автора не только умения продемонстрировать «сумму знаний», но и сделать акцент на собственных чувствах, переживаниях, отношении к тому, о чем он пишет. Словом, автор эссе не просто рассказчик, он - его герой. Для эссе характерны ярко выраженная авторская позиция, искренность, эмоциональность. Жанр дает право на субъективное изложение заявленной проблемы и свободную композицию. Эссе определяют как записки, наброски, раздумья. Оно обычно имеет небольшой объем (250-500 слов).

Тема - своего рода условие задачи, в которое, чтобы понять, нужно вдуматься. Тема, как правило, формулируется так, что предполагает не один "правильный" ответ, а множество решений. Главная задача - понять и раскрыть тему, а не "уйти" от нее. Как правило, темы эссе имеют проблемный, иногда дискуссионный характер и предлагаются в виде высказывания ученого, писателя, поэта, мыслителя. Чрезвычайно важно выделить основную идею автора высказывания и определить, в рамках какого раздела или темы курса ее следует рассматривать.

Полезно на черновике в свободной форме выписать все, что может понадобиться в эссе: понятия, противоречия, ассоциации, цитаты, примеры, тезисы, мнения, аргументы, имена, события - записать все, что кажется нужным, интересным, имеющим отношение к теме.

Следующая задача - соотнести изложение с темой, выбрать эффектную цитату, точную мысль, интересный факт, убедительный аргумент. Самые ответственные части работы - вступление и заключение.

Вступление фокусирует проблематику эссе, ставит ключевые вопросы, указывает на противоречия, выявляет обществоведческие аспекты темы. Заключением должна стать наиболее яркая мысль, подытоживающая, резюмирующая рассуждения.

Структура эссе определяется предъявляемыми к нему требованиями. Мысли автора эссе по проблеме излагаются в форме кратких тезисов. Мысль должна быть подкреплена доказательствами - поэтому за тезисом следуют аргументы. Аргументы - это факты, явления общественной жизни, события, жизненные ситуации и жизненный опыт, научные доказательства, ссылки на мнение ученых, примеры из практики («Case-study»). Лучше приводить два аргумента в пользу каждого тезиса: один аргумент кажется неубедительным, три аргумента могут "перегрузить" изложение, выполненное в жанре, ориентированном на краткость и образность. Таким образом, эссе приобретает кольцевую структуру (количество тезисов и аргументов зависит от темы, избранного плана, логики развития мысли): вступление, тезис, аргументы, тезис, аргументы, тезис, аргументы, заключение. Вступление и заключение фокусируют внимание на проблеме (во вступлении она ставится, в заключении - резюмируется мнение автора). Необходимо помнить о значении выделения абзацев, логической связи абзацев: так достигается целостность работы.

Внимание нужно обратить и на стиль изложения. Нельзя забывать, что эссе присущи эмоциональность, экспрессивность, художественность. Должный эффект обеспечивают короткие, простые, разнообразные по интонации предложения, умелое использование "самого современного" знака препинания - тире. Впрочем, стиль отражает особенности личности, об этом тоже полезно помнить. Эссе – аналитическая, а не описательная работа, в которой четко выражена позиция автора по отношению к приводимым идеям, аргументам и контраргументам, анализ теоретического и эмпирического материала. Как известно, научное эссе представляет собой жанр критики, научной публицистики, предполагающий свободную трактовку научной, социальной проблемы. Обычно его противопоставляют систематическому научному рассмотрению вопроса.

Создателем жанра считается М. Монтень (“Опыты”, 1580 г.), в Англии в конце 16 – начале 17 вв. – Ф. Бэкон. Эссе – очень распространенный жанр в современной западной критической научной литературе. Достоинством жанра является то, что он позволяет в определенной мере пренебречь жесткими рамками научного изложения, реализовать полет мысли, критически оценить накопленное знание и выдвинуть нестандартные идеи по рассмотрению проблемы.

Критериями оценивания эссе выступают: характер использования профессиональных и научных терминов и понятий; выражение собственного мнения (наличие позиции автора); аргументация; осознание проблемы (аналитические элементы) и предлагаемые способы решения этой проблемы в работе, знание рекомендованной литературы и корректное цитирование, использование профессиональной терминологии, ясность, стиль изложения, логичность объяснения результатов с помощью понятий и категорий в сфере «Связей с общественностью», использование примеров из практики работы - «Case-study».

Writing an Abstract

An academic abstract is a short restatement of all essential points of a research paper. The abstract is one single paragraph and is subject to specific word limits, typically under 300 words. It stands alone bellow the title or at the end of the paper. Note that an abstract is NOT an introduction or a plan to the paper. In the words of Craig W. Allin, "abstracts are an exercise in writing with precision and efficiency."

In fact, the abstract is written after the investigation and the whole article is completed. It should be written in the same language as the paper and should be translated into one of the world languages. We can say that the primary purpose of an abstract is to permit a quick appraise of the applicability, importance and validity of a research paper. But always recall that the reader KNOW the subject but HAS NOT READ the paper.

The abstract presents the information in four general sections: INTRODUCTION, METHODS, RESULTS and CONCLUSIONS. It is worth noting that an abstract is only text and follows strictly the logical order of the paper. That is, the abstract ought to parallel the structure of the original paper. At the same time, it adds NO new information, i. e. that is not stated in the paper. Now notice that the abstract can be viewed as an independent document. It is because of this that it should be unified, coherent (i.e. providing appropriate transitions or logical linkage between the information included), concise, and able to stand alone. In other words, the abstract should be complete in itself.

Surely, it is sometimes the case that an abstract will be read along with the title and in general it will likely be read without the rest of the document. In fact, we might consider that the abstract is the most important part of a scientific paper. It follows, then, that it is an absolute must to include all the keywords related to the study. Notice that keywords (also called search terms) represent the most important terms or concepts (words or phrases) relevant to your topic.

There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. The descriptive or indicative abstract, identifies the contents of the research or the basic subject of the article, demonstrating the paper's organization without providing results or conclusions. Thus, it is not very informative. This type of abstract is always very short, usually under 100 words; and it is useful for a long report. On the other hand, the informative abstract, which is also known simply as a summary, gives the principal argument and summarizes the principal data, providing the reader with an overview of the objectives, methods, results and conclusions of the study. So, be specific. You may also have heard of a "structured abstract" -- this is a subtype of the informative abstract which has more than one paragraph.

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Writing a Press Release

A press release, also known as a news release, is simply a written statement to the media. They can announce a range of news items: scheduled events, personnel promotions, awards, new products and services, sales accomplishments, etc. They can also be used in generating a feature story. Reporters are more likely to consider a story idea if they first receive a release. It is a fundamental tool of PR work, one that anyone who's willing to use the proper format can use.

Steps

1

Write the headline. It should be brief, clear and to the point: an ultra-compact version of the press release’s key point.

News release headlines should have a "grabber" to attract readers, i.e., journalists, just as a newspaper headline is meant to grab readers. It may describe the latest achievement of an organization, a recent newsworthy event, a new product or service. For example, "XYZ Co. enters strategic partnership with ABC Co. in India & United States."

Headlines are written in bold and are typically larger than the press release text. Conventional press release headlines are present-tense and exclude "a" and "the" as well as forms of the verb "to be" in certain contexts.

The first word in the press release headline should be capitalized, as should all proper nouns. Most headline words appear in lower-case letters, although adding a stylized "small caps" style can create a more graphically news-attractive look and feel. Do not capitalize every word.

The simplest method to arrive at the press release headline is to extract the most important keywords from your press release. Now from these keywords, try to frame a logical and attention-getting statement. Using keywords will give you better visibility in search engines, and it will be simpler for journalists and readers to get the idea of the press release content.

2

Write the press release body copy. The press release should be written as you want it to appear in a news story.

Start with the date and city in which the press release is originated. The city may be omitted if it will be confusing, for example if the release is written in New York about events in the company's Chicago division.

The lead, or first sentence, should grab the reader and say concisely what is happening. The next 1-2 sentences then expand upon the lead.

The press release body copy should be compact. Avoid using very long sentences and paragraphs. Avoid repetition and over use of fancy language and jargon.

A first paragraph (two to three sentences) must actually sum up the press release and the further content must elaborate it. In a fast-paced world, neither journalists nor other readers would read the entire press release if the start of the article didn't generate interest.

Deal with actual facts - events, products, services, people, targets, goals, plans, projects. Try to provide maximum use of concrete facts. A simple method for writing an effective press release is to make a list of following things:

3

Communicate the 5 Ws and the H. Who, what, when, where, why, and how. Then consider the points below if pertinent.

Include information about the company. When a journalist picks up your press release for a story, he/she would logically have to mention the company in the news article. Journalists can then get the company information from this section.

The title for this section should be - About XYZ_COMPANY

After the title, use a paragraph or two to describe your company with 5/6 lines each. The text must describe your company, its core business and the business policy. Many businesses already have professionally written brochures, presentations, business plans, etc. - that introductory text can be put here.

At the end of this section, point to your website. The link should be the exact and complete URL without any embedding so that, even if this page is printed, the link will be printed as it is. For example: http://www.your_company_website.com. Companies which maintain a separate media page on their websites must point to that URL here. A media page typically has contact information and press kits.

5

Tie it together. Provide some extra information links that support your press release.

6

Add contact information. If your press release is really newsworthy, journalists would surely like more information or would like to interview key people associated with it.

If you are comfortable with the idea of letting your key people being directly contacted by media, you can provide their contact details on the press release page itself. For example, in case of some innovation, you can provide the contact information of your engineering or research team for the media.

Otherwise, you must provide the details of your media/PR department in the "Contact" section. If you do not have dedicated team for this function, you must appoint somebody who will act as a link between the media and your people.

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Writing report

In the introduction we clearly state the purpose of the report. In the main body we present each main topic in a new paragraph with an appropriate heading. We discuss the positive and negative aspects (if there is any of each feature). The number of paragraphs depends on the number of main topics. In the conclusion we give our overall impression and make our recommendation. We always write a report in a formal style (i.e. passive voice, full verb forms, impersonal language, etc.).

Presentation

All presentations, regardless of their complexity, are designed with a single purpose. Whether that purpose is to sell, educate, or for pure entertainment, state that purpose to yourself at the beginning of the development process. Keep this purpose in mind always. A five minute presentation to a three person audience is probably best made with handout material alone, or even simple flip charts. Larger audiences might be effectively reached by using a few simple overhead transparencies. A half hour training or sales presentation may clearly indicate a 35 millimeter slide show or even video. If the resources are available, dual projector dissolve presentations have a natural continuity and convey a more professional image at an economical price. Major presentations at annual meetings, trade shows, sales conferences, and presentations to stockholders or client proposals can dictate an all out effort with professionally produced special effects, video and all manner of glitz and expense.

The script does not necessarily have to be a work of literary excellence. For some, simple notes on 3 x 5 file cards are sufficient. Other presenters and presentations require a carefully composed, professionally developed script. The exact form of the script depends on the formality of the presentation, the make up of the audience and who will be presenting it. Any presentation script, regardless of complexity is like any other business correspondence. It should consist of the same four basic parts, an opening, body, summary and closing.

In the opening the participants are introduced and the purpose of the presentation is stated. You should also present a VERY BRIEF summary or outline of the points to be covered. This helps keep your audience oriented properly within the framework of your script. The body is the part of the script in which the bulk of the subject matter is presented. The body should be separated into smaller, easily assimilated modules. Each module or sub-section should make a single point or convey one idea. The summary should be very brief and simple. Here is your chance to reinforce the central theme and purpose of your presentation. Briefly emphasize the key points and main ideas of your script in this section. There is an old axiom that says,. "Tell them what you are going to tell them, tell them, and then tell them what you told them." This pretty well sums it up.

Question and answer sessions often follow a final summary and are very productive if managed properly. You should encourage questions from the audience if time or format permits, but be prepared to answer them. If you do not know the correct answer to a question, don't try to fake it. You should refer the question to someone who can answer it correctly or make a note to yourself to obtain the answer later. When you do, contact the person or persons who asked it as soon as possible. This makes an excellent door opener for follow up calls.

Your final script and outline or story board permit you to rehearse your presentation even before the visuals are completed. This assures that when your final images are prepared and ready, you will be as well.

If you'd like to really test your mettle, drag out the camcorder and tape your rehearsal. Just keep in mind, no one expects you to be Winston Churchill.

On the day of the presentation, arrive and set up early. Have spare projector bulbs and extra copies of the handout material close at hand.

You have your visuals, you are well rehearsed, the room is set up and the participants are all prepared. Speak clearly and with authority. A little humor if tastefully added can help break the tension of the moment. There should be no surprises. Make certain that the audience questions have been addressed, and of course, thank everyone for attending.

Check back with the attendants and participants to assure that your presentation goals were met. A questionnaire distributed at the end of your presentation can be a source of critical information for follow up calls or future presentations. Encourage the attendants to call or write with any questions that they did not get answered during the presentation.

While this first point may seem obvious, it is very important that you research every nuance of your subject. Read reports and look up information about the subject with the specific purpose of writing a presentation script. When examined in this light, new ideas and alternative ways of thinking often develop. The ability to present a subject with confidence directly affects your audience's impressions and will help keep their attention.

This is especially important when giving a design presentation or proposal since you are in effect "selling" your ideas to the audience. This applies whether the audience is a potential client or your own board of directors.

Handout material should not be distributed before a presentation unless it is critical to the theme since it invariably leads to audience distraction.

A small amount of research into the makeup of your audience will reap large benefits on presentation day. An engineering presentation in which the audience expects or requires highly detailed technical illustrations and data might be inappropriate when presented to a nontechnical group. This would be true even though the basic subject matter is nearly identical.

If the previous steps have been carefully followed, this can be the easiest part of preparing your presentation.

With careful, timely planning, the only task remaining is mechanical process of production. The complete and accurate planning that you have done to this point assures a smooth production cycle without the need for unnecessary last minute changes. Today's computer graphics products permit you to make changes and. alterations that could not be accomplished using any other method of production. While last minute changes are possible, avoiding them can still help cut the cost of your presentation by eliminating revision and rush fees.

The term visual aids encompasses a wide range of items. The more common ones include slides, overheads, charts, flipcharts, and props. Video equipment ranges from lightweight, portable presenters, which combine videoplayer, screen and minispeaker. to video walls, providing images over a huge area.

Program input - the 'software' - can be via videotape (in any one of a number of different formats), video disc (also in different formats), or computer, which is particularly good for displaying up-to-the minute information.

Whether you are simply reporting the facts, or presenting them so that they convey a message, you have the following basic types of chart to choose from line graphs, or fever charts. Visualization of quantities, plotted a time period, by means of a rising and falling line. Example - sales graph, stock market prices, voting pattering, productive gains.