Завдання до модульної контрольної роботи № 1

1. Переклад, як інтелектуальна діяльність.

2. Історія перекладацької діяльності з часів Київської Русі.

3. Перекладацька діяльність Максима Грека.

4. Історія розвитку машинного перекладу.

5. Етика професії перекладача.

6. Особливості професії перекладача.

7. Школи перекладу. Перекладацькі організації.

8. Перекладацька діяльність О.С. Пушкіна.

9. Вчені, які займалися проблемою машинного перекладу.

10. Перекладацька діяльність Лесі Українки.

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A short history of the remote control

Oh sure, it’s easy being a couch potato now. Wondrous advances in technology, particularly during the 1990^s, have made it easy and fun to “surf” the television channels from the comfort of your armchair. Remote controls offer everything from picture-within-a-picture technology, to on-screen programming that doesn’t even require you to look at the remote control.

As we rush towards ever greater technological advances, let us not forget the difficulties experienced by the millions who have come before us. For years they struggled with remote controls that changed channels or muted the volume unpredictably. Though proclaimed as technological marvels in their day, today those devices look extremely funny.

So come with us as we flash back to the 1950^s. The decade may have been the Golden Age of television but in the evolution of the remote control it was the Stone Age…

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A short history of the remote control

…The most primitive of the remotes was developed in 1950 by Zenith Electronics which decades later would win an Emmy for its pioneering work in remote-control technology. Zenith’s first creative idea was the clever “Lazy Bones”, a control with a cable that connected the television to the device. Just by pushing buttons on the remote, viewers could turn the television on and off and change channels.

“Prest-o! Change-o!” cried a magazine ad introducing the product. “Just press a button… to change a station!” The problem? “Trip-o! Fall-o!” Customers complained that the cable, besides being unsightly as it snaked across the living room floor, tripped many an unsuspecting passerby…

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A short history of the remote control

… In 1955 Zenith came up with a wireless remote. Zenith engineers invented the Flashmatic, which worked by firing a beam of light. First-generation couch potatoes accepted the new technology eagerly, but there was a glaring problem. It reacted to any kind of light, channels changed unpredictably and the sound mysteriously came and went. “So if the sun set glaringly and came through the living room window, it would hit the set and cause problems,” says Zenith engineer Robert Adler. Also, viewers who weren’t as technologically aware as they are today had trouble remembering which button controlled which function.

It was Adler, an Austrian born immigrant, who fathered the remote-control that would dominate the industry for the next quarter of a century. Ironic when you consider that Adler, by his own admission to this day watches no more than an hour of television a week…

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A short history of the remote control

…In 1955 Adler came up with the concept of a remote based on ultrasonic – that is, high-frequency sound beyond the range of human hearing. Adler’s invention which Zenith introduced in 1956 and named the Space Commander 400 would react to any number of metallic noises similar to those produced by the transmitter. For example, the family dog could change channels just by furiously scratching its back legs, thereby causing its dog tags to jingle. A ringing telephone or jingling keys would have the same effect.

Today, in the Golden Age of the remote control, some 99 percent of TV sets and all video cassette recorders sold in the United States come with remote controls. So do many other electronic components, such as compact disc players, and satellite dishes. “Universal” remotes, which have been around since the mid-‘80^s, allow you to operate several products – say, for example, the TV, the VCR and CD player – with just one transmitter rather than three separate units. Even common household functions – switching on a light or turning off a ceiling fan – can be performed today by remote control. In an industry that is continuously introducing amazing new gadgetry, who knows where couch-potato technology will go from here?

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The robot most likely to...

Programming robots so they can work out what others are thinking could not only make them much more versatile, but cheaper too.

Manufacturers who buy expensive robots to do specialized jobs like spray-painting cars would rather buy general-purpose droids that they can train to do a wide variety of jobs simply by showing them the task. But today’s copycat robots merely follow a fixed set of coordinates telling them where their limbs need to move. This means they can’t handle unexpected events such as obstacles getting in their way. They go through the motions rather than work out how to do a job.

Gillian Hayes, George Maistros and Yuval Marom at the University of Edinburgh say it’s much better to create robots that can “understand” the purpose of a task, rather than just copy mechanical movements. That way, a robot would be better equipped to cope with interruptions and then carry on when the obstacle, say, has been removed…

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The robot most likely to...

…Gillian Hayes, George Maistros and Yuval Marom at the University of Edinburgh say it’s much better to create robots that can “understand” the purpose of a task, rather than just copy mechanical movements. That way, a robot would be better equipped to cope with interruptions and then carry on when the obstacle, say, has been removed.

This approach to robotics was just a dream until 1998 when Italian neuroscientists discovered neural circuits that understand the intention behind an action. They found that when a monkey does something deliberate, like pick a banana off a table, a certain group of neurons fires in the brain. But the same group of neurons also fired when the monkey saw another monkey – or a human – repeating the action. Neurons that behave like this have been termed “mirror neurons”.

Hayes says her group wanted to exploit the way mirror neurons seem to underpin a type of “mind-reading” – by enabling the brain to read the intention behind some-one else’s movements…

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The robot most likely to...

… At an AI conference in Massachusetts last week, Maistros and Marom said they have designed primitive robots with circuits wired in a way they believe is similar to mirror neurons.

When their robots see a movement that they don’t recognize, they create a “node” in their processing circuitry – a point that can either be on or off. The node represents that movement, and is only switched on either when the robot sees the corresponding movement, or carries out the movement itself – just like a mirror neuron.

If the point was to lift a glass of water, for example, someone would approach the table the glass sits on, and this would generate a node in the robot. So would opening a hand to receive the glass. As the robot sees more and more of such actions, the nodes they generate cluster into “targets” in the robot’s brain that represent the overall point of the action – picking up the glass. Then to make the robot do the job, you simply activate the target cluster. It will then use its motors, arms and grippers and so on to perform the required action.

The full power of the mirror-neuron approach isn’t obvious in the team’s prototype robots, because they only learn one action each. But the team now wants to make the droids more flexible by teaching them that they could move their gripper forward for a number of reasons, for example when shaking hands, or to spray-paint an object, say.

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How robots appeared

The concept of robotics, although not referred to by that term until relatively recently, has captured man’s imagination for centuries.

One of the first automatic animals – a wooden bird that could fly – was built by Plato’s friend Archytas of Tareentum, who lived between 400 and 350 before our era. In the second century of our era, Hero of Alexandria described in his book, “DeAutomatis” mechanical theatre with robot-like figures that marched and danced in temple ceremonies.

The predecessors of programmable robots are classified as automata in contrast to toys because of their length and complexity of their operating cycles.

A French engineer who lived in the 18^th century was elected to the Academy of Sciences for his work, which included the creation of a life-size, flute-playing shepherd. Two other Frenchmen constructed life-like automata driven by springs.

In 1921, Karel Czapek, the Czech playwright, novelist and essayist wrote the satirical drama R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots), which introduced the word “robot” into the English language…

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How robots appeared

…Early robots were not entirely self-regulating. They were strictly on-off devices – they turned switches on and off. They could perform only one action, and would keep performing that action no matter what happened as they were unable to operate under a variety of conditions. If a new situation arose, they were incapable of doing anything about it.

In the early 1960’s, the first industrial robot was introduced. The idea was to build a machine that was flexible enough to do a variety of jobs automatically and which could be easily taught or programmed so that if the part of process changed, the robot could adapt to its new job without expensive retooling, as was the case with hard automation.

The use of computers, sensors, and mechanical actuators or manipulators as a coordinated system utilized in manufacturing systems has been a subject of study and application for several decades. Manually controlled manipulators of space systems and for nuclear fuel control have been designed and implemented for many years…

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How robots appeared

… Robots combine computer intelligence, modern sensors, and manipulator arms to provide flexible devices that can economically increase the productivity of manufacturing processes.

Many computer factory systems exist today in the world of automation. We can be sure that tomorrow more integrated factory systems will become economically profitable.

With the enhanced functions of computer software and hardware, the introduction of computers for industry automation becomes more common.

In our days one cannot imagine technical progress without automation, which is the highest stage of mechanization. The number of automatic plants in our country grows and will continue to grow. Such is the demand of the scientific and technological progress of modern civilization.

Thus, like most of the things we have today, robots are the result of the contribution of hundreds of men throughout history. Men in many different countries and in many different fields of activity helped build robots.

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