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dispersion of resources and help the company where it most needs help. However, every interesting idea should be examined, even if it is not in an area defined as a priority.

To value change and meet the requirements of an organization where the pace of change is high, people must know that it pays to have a positive attitude to change and constantly to look for changes from which the organization can benefit. Innovation and creativity can be stimulated by financial rewards, public recognition, promotions, making the job content more interesting, offering training and self-development opportunities, and so on. Conversely, people must be able to see that it does not pay to be conservative and resist innovation and change.

The values, attitudes and collectively held norms that make up organizational culture (see Chapter 5) develop over a number of years and, once established, they are not easy to change. But it is not impossible to influence and eventually to change them. Therefore if organizational culture constitutes the main obstacle to change, or if it does not stimulate change in an environment that is rapidly changing, managers’ and consultants’ efforts may need to focus on organizational culture first of all.

4.3Gaining support for change

One of the principal messages of this chapter is that effective change needs the support of the people involved. This can be a very complex matter. Managers and consultants may feel uncertain about their ability to mobilize support for the change envisaged. If errors are made by management, any existing support may be lost and give way to resistance; to redress the situation may then be a delicate task.

Inviting people to participate actively in a change effort at all its stages is generally a useful method for gaining support and reducing resistance. It helps to create an atmosphere in which people feel they are the “owners” of a change proposal: the idea comes neither from the top, nor from an external person, but from within the group. If things go wrong, the group does not seek a culprit from outside, but takes responsibility, examines the causes and willingly helps in redefining the proposals.

Drawing attention to the need for change

There are numerous methods of drawing the attention of individuals and groups to the need for a change (see section 3.6, where various methods of influencing the client system are discussed). However, two proven methods are of particular interest to consultants.

The most effective manner of arousing immediate attention is by making people anxious. In special cases the induction of a state of extreme anxiety is undeniably effective – for example, a building will be cleared very promptly if it is reported that a bomb has been placed in it. However, the continued use of

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the heightened anxiety approach tends to be self-defeating. Recipients eventually ignore the threats, especially if the alleged events do not occur.

Nevertheless, the induction of a low level of anxiety is an effective attentionarousing device which can be sustained over a long period. A particularly successful combination is to use an anxiety state to draw attention to specific needs (i.e. the unfreezing process described in section 4.1) and to follow up by providing a solution that meets those needs.

The second method is called the two-step information process. The underlying idea is that change is effectively introduced and accepted as a result of a multiplier effect in the flow of information.

Research findings suggest that the people most likely to experiment and to be influenced by new approaches possess certain characteristics. These individuals, called “isolates”, are inclined to be highly technically oriented; to read widely on their chosen subjects; to attend meetings and conferences frequently; and to travel in order to investigate new schemes. They may be considered by their group to be something akin to “cranks”, and are not likely to influence other members of their workgroup directly.

Nevertheless, the activities of these technically oriented isolates are observed by a second type of person who possesses characteristics similar to those of isolates but who generally has less time available to experiment and test new methods in any depth, usually owing to widespread interests in other fields. This second type of person, identified as an “opinion-leader”, has considerable influence over the group, and even beyond it. In addition to acknowledged technical expertise, this type of person usually has considerable civic and social standing.

Typically, in the adoption of new procedures, the new scheme is first investigated, along with other possible choices, by the isolate and is eventually chosen over other alternatives because of its technical superiority. The opinionleader then adopts the new idea once he or she is convinced that the isolate has firmly decided on this new approach. Subsequently an “epidemic” phase erupts as the followers of the opinion-leader also adopt the new approach. Therefore, when introducing change a strong case can usually be made for emphasizing the highly technical aspects of the new approach in order to attract and convince both the isolates and the opinion-leaders who, under normal circumstances, should assist in influencing and convincing the other members of the group.

Getting support for specific proposals

Once the audience’s attention has been aroused, and interest created in seeking change, then comes the time to develop a desire for the change proposal. In presenting information to support the selection of a given proposal in preference to alternative schemes, it is often useful to mention some negative aspects of the proposed scheme in addition to the more beneficial ones. Similarly, the positive and negative aspects of existing or alternative schemes should also be presented. This technique of explaining all aspects of the case under review is referred to as an “inoculation” effect; it weakens any objections likely to arise at a later date.

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An effective manner of presenting information in support of proposal B, which is intended to displace proposal A, is to employ the following sequence:

(1)present a complete listing of all the positive and beneficial aspects of proposal B;

(2)mention the obvious drawbacks associated with proposal B;

(3)describe a comprehensive listing of the deficiencies of proposal A;

(4)indicate the most pertinent positive features of proposal A.

The manager or the consultant should then draw conclusions as to why proposal B should be chosen by listing the benefits to be accrued (i.e. service provided), the effectiveness of the new proposal (i.e. technical and economic superiority) and, if applicable, instances where such a proposal has already been successfully employed.

Personality composition of the audience

Maintaining control of a gathering or crowd of people is difficult at the best of times. When dealing with individuals or small groups, there are sometimes opportunities to use group members as enhancers of the change process. Individuals who are poised, confident and have a certain amount of self-esteem are often able to influence others who lack these characteristics. In turn, individuals with relatively high self-esteem appear to be more influenced by information containing optimistic rather than pessimistic or negative connotations. The consultant should enlist support for the change process from people with high self-esteem by drawing attention to likely optimistic results. These people are then in a position to support the consultant’s proposals to the group.

The informal communication network

Communications on a highly topical issue appear to produce a greater and more rapid change in attitude in an audience when the information is “accidentally overheard”, or leaked through informal communication networks than when delivered through formal channels. Rumours, which flourish in the absence of formal communications, are usually confined to informal channels (“the grapevine”) and can often be countered by appropriate use of the same network. Even a fundamental piece of information, such as a statement that the future of a particular programme or unit is highly uncertain, may affect people’s attitudes more if spread informally than if officially issued by management. Occasionally, both formal and informal channels should be combined to reinforce the message.

Handling objections to change

An essential skill for managing and assisting change is the ability to handle objections. Broadly speaking, objectors can be classified as “sharpeners” or

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