9. The Adjective.

The adjective is a part of speech which modifies the noun. Adjectives can express qualities, physical and emotional states , origin ,opinions

Adjectives can be simple ,derived ,compound.

All adjectives fall into two groups-qualitative and relative. Qualitative adjectives denote properties of a substance directly. Relative adjectives describe properties of a substance .

Adjectives are used in the sentence in the functions of an attribute or of a predicative:

e.g. He always drinks cold milk.

Adjectives have degrees of comparison: the comparative and the superlative degree.

The comparative and the superlative degrees of comparison are formed on the synthetic, analytic and suppletive ways.

The synthetic degrees of comparison are formed by adding the inflexion -er, -est (fine- finer- finest)

The analytic degrees are formed by means of “more” and “most” (difficult- more difficult- most difficult).

The suppletive way when some other words are used to build up the form.(good- better- best)

10. Phonetic Expressive Means.

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which alms at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc.) by things (machines or tools, etc.) by people (singing, laughter) and animals. Therefore the relation between onomatopoeia and the phenomenon it is supposed to represent is one of metonymy There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect. Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as ding-dong, burr, bang, cuckoo. Onomatopoetic words can be used in a transferred meaning, as for instance, ding - dong, which represents the sound of bells rung continuously, may mean 1) noisy, 2) strenuously contested.Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometimes called "echo writing".Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds.

Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines.They can be divided into two main groups: vowel rhymes and consonant rhymes. In vowel-rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different as in flesh - fresh -press. Consonant rhymes, on the contrary, show concordance in consonants and disparity in vowels, as in worth - forth, tale - tool -treble - trouble; flung - long.Modifications in rhyming sometimes go so far as to make one word rhyme with a combination of words; as in "bottom –forgot them- shot him". Such rhymes are called compound or broken. Compound rhyme may be set against what is called eye - rhyme, where the letters and not the sounds are identical, as in love - prove

Rhythm -The most general definition of rhythm may be expressed as follows: "rhythm is a flow, movement, procedure, etc. characterized by basically regular recurrence of elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with opposite or different elements of features" (Webster's New World Dictionary).

Rhythm can be perceived only provided that there is some kind of experience in catching the opposite elements or features in their correlation, and, what is of paramount importance, experience in catching regularity of alternating patterns. Rhythm is a periodicity, which requires specification as to the type of periodicity. Inverse rhythm is regular succession of weak and strong stress. A rhythm in language necessarily demands oppositions that alternate: long, short; stressed, unstressed; high, low and other contrasting segments of speech.

10.Lautisse Paints Again

I want to tell you a few words about story “Lautisse Paints Again” written by Smith. The story is about well-know artist. He met with a family on a ship. Nobody recognized him and he said to this family who he was. There was the fence hear the house. And Lautisse painted it. This fence was sold for very great many and Lautisse again became famous.

I like this text. It's very funny because the joke of lifThe Vergee is that this fence was sold so much money.

The main idea of this text is pun.

Sd:

repetition-he asked

hyperboly-was probable the world's best living painter

perifrasise-never touch the brush again

metaphor-coat of paint

litota-he hadn't enjoued himself so much in years.

9.Letters in the mail.

I want to tell you a few words about a story by E. Caldwell “Letter in the Mail”.

The story is about Ray Buffin and Grace, a single night telephone operator. Grace was asked to write a love letter Ray without signing it by two Guy Hodge and Ralph Barnhill, who loved to play jokes. After all she wrote it. When after Ray read the letter, he realized that he and Grace had always be in love with each other.In my opinion the main idea of the story that the people should take chances in order to change their love better.The writer uses rather many different stylistic devices.First of all, antonomasia that is used in the start of the story (stillwater) show us still town. A lot of repetitions that is used in the middle of the story, (she turned away, she didn’t want, she remembered the time; to play jokes, to play a joke; sadder and sadder) show us Grace’s feeling to Ray. I’ve found some antithesis that is used in the start and in the end of the story (liked to get letter, received fewer letters; the widest and happiest smile) show us stress situation. There are a lot of examples of metaphors (to play jokes, a love letter, to find a husband). In the middle of the story you can see verbs attention (what they wanted to do and had asked her to write; refused o do it) to show us stress of this situation. Writer uses hyperbole (smiled happily) and simile (he behaved like mad) to show us all happy and love of main hero.I like this story, because it’s very romantic and pretty.

11. The First Germanic Consonant Shift (Grimm’s Law). Speaking about Germanic consonants, we should first of all speak of the correspondence between Indo-European and Germanic languages which was presented as a system of interconnected facts by the German linguist Jacob Grimm in 1822. This phenomenon is called the First Consonant Shift, or Grimm’s Law.

Grimm’s Law explains the correspondence between certain groups of Germanic and non-Germanic consonants. Those correspondences involve three sets of Germanic consonants; consequently they generally speak of three stages of Grimm’s Law. Jacob Grimm named them ‘’acts’’. Let’s analyze scheme of Grimm’s Law with the examples from Germanic and other Indo-European languages.

The first stage is the most consistent. Indo-European voiceless occlusive plosive consonants [p], [t],[k], other then Germanic, shifted in Germanic languages into the voiceless fricative consonants [f], [p],[h] in similar phonetic environment. It was a non-assimilative change which presumably affected Germanic languages.

The second stage is not easy to explain because correspondences in the second group are less clear. Indo-European voiced aspirated occlusive consonants [bh], [dh],[gh]shifted in Germanic languages into the voiced non-aspirated occlusive consonants [b], [d], [g].

In the third stage Indo-European voiced occlusive [b],[d],[g] shifted in Germanic languages into the voiceless occlusive consonants [p],[t],[k].

It should be noted, however, that these correspondences are not absolutely clear in all cases.

12. Theories of syllable formation and syllable division.

Though the basic phonological elements are phonemes, human intercommunication is actualized in syllables.The syllable as a unit is difficult to define, though native speakers of a language are usually able to state how many syllable there are in a particular word.

The syllable can be a single word: chair, a part of a word: English, a part of the grammatical form of a word: later.The syllable can be analysed from the acoustic and auditory, articulatory and functional points of view.Acoustically and auditorily the syllable is characterized by the force of utterance, pitch of the voice, sonority and length that is by prosodic features.

Auditorily the syllable is the smallest unit of perception. Syllables in writing are called syllabographs. A syllable can be formed by a vowel: in English, in Russian; by a vowel and a consonant: in English, in Russian; by a consonant and a sonorant.

Theories of syllable formation and syllable division.

Different points of view on syllable formation are: vowels, expiration pulses and peaks of prominence or sonority.Functional characteristics of the syllable

Constitutive FunctionSyllables may be stressed, unstressed, high, mid, and low, rising, falling, long, short.Distinctive and Differentiatory Function Indentificatory FunctionThis function is conditioned by the pronunciation of the speaker.

Graphic characteristics of the syllable

The auditory image of a syllable can be shown in transcription. It is very important to observe correct syllable division.

There are six rules to help with dividing a word in writing: never divide a word within a syllable, never divide an ending of two syllables such as –able, -ably, -fully. With the exception of –ly, never divide a word, Never divide a word so that one of the parts is a single letter. Never divide a word of one syllable. Never divide a word of less than five letters.

12.The Ant and the Grasshopper.

I want to tell you a few words about story “The Ant and the Grasshopper” written by Maugham. The story is about two brothers (Tom and George). Tom would have a good carrier and was respectable people. But one day he left his wife and his office. He spent 2 happy years in the various capitals of Europe. They soon found out: he borrowed. He turned to George. George gave Tom considerable sums. For twenty years Tom gambled, dance and dressed beautifully. George was in his office every morning. He had a good wife and 4 daughters. One day Tom became engaged to old woman; she left him half a million pounds, a house in London… it is not fair.The main idea of this story is “Every family has a black ship”.The writer uses rather many different SD.I found some SD, for example: hyperbole (an expression of such deep gloom) shows us George’s feelings; alliteration (has, him, half, house) shows us fortune of Tom’s life; metaphor (fell out of love) shows us Roger’s feelings words with positive connotation (honest, the best of father) shows us George’s character; repetition (he had, he had, he was, he was) demonstrated George’s character.I don’t like this story because it is not good. All of this situation it is not fair. George works and was poor, then Tom gambled but he has riches. And Tom didn’t help his brother.

11.Jimmy Valentine’s reformation.

The story I’m going to analyse is ‘’ Jimmy Valentine’s reformation’’ written by Henry.

Safe cracker Jimmy Valentine is released from prison after 10 month he was originally sentenced to four years but men with as many friends as Jimmy usually didn’t stay locked up for long. He goes to his old apartment packs up his tools and leaves. In the following weeks a few crash robberies are committed and the detective who landed Valentine in the first place. Ben Price is called to work on the new case. He realized that the robbers are committed in Jimmy’s style. Then Jimmy has his business and engaged Annabel. Valentine start to leave the bank after wards and he sees. Price standing by the door and realizes he had witnessed the whole incident. Sheepishly he gives himself up but much to his surprise. Price pretends not to recognize him and walks away.

SD: find in the text

I think that the main idea of the text is your life is in your hands.

13. Etymology of the English Language.

Etymology is the study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have changed over time.English derives from Old English, a West Germanic variety, although its current vocabulary includes words from many languages. The Old English roots may be seen in the similarity of numbers in English and German, particularly seven/sieben, eight/acht. Pronouns are also cognate: I/mine/me ich/mein/mich. Although more than half of the words in the English lexicon come from either the French language, most of the common words used in English are of Germanic origin. When the Normans conquered England in 1066, they brought their Norman language with them. During the Anglo-Norman period, which united continental territories, the ruling class spoke Anglo-Norman, while the peasants spoke the vernacular English of the time. Anglo-Norman was the conduit for the introduction of French into England, aided by the circulation of Langue d'oïl literature from France. This led to many paired words of French and English origin. For example, beef is related to modern French bœuf pork to porc. All these words, French and English, refer to the meat rather than to the animal. Words that refer to farm animals, on the other hand, tend to be cognates of words in other Germanic languages. For example swine/Schwein, cow/Kuh. The variant usage has been explained by the proposition that it was the Norman rulers who mostly ate meat and the Anglo-Saxons who farmed the animals. Scientific terminology relies heavily on words of Latin and Greek origin. Spanish has contributed many words, particularly in the southwestern United States. Examples include buckaroo from vaquero or "cowboy"; alligator from el lagarto or "lizard"; rodeo and savvy; states' names such as Colorado and Florida. Cuddle, eerie, and greed come from Scots; albino, palaver, lingo, verandah, and coconut from Portuguese; diva, prima donna, pasta, pizza, paparazzi, and umbrella from Italian; adobe, alcohol, algebra, algorithm, apricot, assassin, caliber, cotton, hazard, jacket, jar, julep, mosque, Muslim, orange, safari, sofa, and zero from Arabic; honcho, sushi, and tsunami from Japanese; dim sum, gung ho, kowtow, kumquat, ketchup, and typhoon from Cantonese Chinese; behemoth, hallelujah, Satan, jubilee, and rabbi from Hebrew; taiga, sable, and sputnik from Russian; galore, whiskey, phoney, trousers, and Tory from Irish; brahman, guru, karma, and pandit from Sanskrit; kampong and amok from Malay; smorgasbord and ombudsman from Swedish; sauna from Finnish; and boondocks from the Tagalog word, bundok. (See also "loanword.")In 1755, Samuel Johnson published the first significant English dictionary, his Dictionary of the English Language.The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary.