21. The Development of the Germanic Morphological System.

The development of the Germanic morphological system

the change in the word structure was one of the main processes in the development of the Germanic morphological system. The common Indo-European notional word consisted of three elements: the root, the ending, and the stem-forming suffix,.

The Germanic nouns had four cases, had the category of gender and two number forms.

The Germanic adjectives had: two types of declension: strong and weak; degrees of comparison.

The Germanic verbs were divided into two principal groups: strong and weak verbs,

The Germanic verb had a well-developed system of categories, including the category of person , number, tense , mood .

22. The Subject-Matter of Phonetics.

Phonetics deals with speech sounds. In Greek phonetikos means: pertaining to voice and sound. The significance of phonetics is evident, since speech is the most important means of human intercourse.Sounds of speech are segments interconnected with minimal distinctive units – phonemes. Supersegmental units of speech – tone, stress and intonation are longer units of speech: syllables, words and intonation groups.

Phonetics is an independent branch of linguistics like lexicology, grammar and stylistics. Phonetics is connected with linguistic and non-linguistic sciences: acoustics, physiology, psychology, logic, etc.The connection of phonetics with grammar, lexicology and stylistics is exercised first of all via orthography, which in its turn is very closely connected with phonetics.Phonetics formulates the rules of pronunciation for separate sounds and sound combinations. The rules of reading are based on the relation of sounds to orthography and present certain difficulties in learning the English language, especially on the initial stage of studying.One of the most important phonetic phenomena – sound interchange – is another manifestation of the connection of phonetics with grammar.Vowel interchange helps to distinguish the singular and the plural of such words as: m_n – menVowel interchange is connected with the tense forms of irregular verbs, for instance: sing-sang-sungVowel interchange can help to distinguish between:1)Nouns and verbs 2)Adjectives and nouns 3)Verbs and adjectives 4)Nouns and noun 5)Nouns and adjectives

Vowel interchange can be observed in onomatopoeic compounds.Phonetics is also connected with grammar through its intonation component. Sometimes intonation alone can serve to single our predication in the sentence.Phonetics is also connected with lexicology. It is only due to the presence of stress, or accent, in the right place, that we can distinguish certain nouns from verbs.

Homographs can be differentiated only due to pronunciation, because they are identical in spelling.Phonetics is also connected with stylistics through repetition of words, phrases and sounds.Onomatopoeia a combination of sounds which imitate sounds produced in nature, is one more stylistic device. The study of phonetic phenomena from the stylistic point of view is phonostylistics.It is connected with a number of linguistic and non-linguistic disciplines, such as: psychology, literary etc. Phonetics has the following branches:1. Articulatory and perceptive2. Acoustic3. Functional

Articulatory and perceptive investigation of speech sounds is done on the basis of a good knowledge of the voice and sound producing mechanisms, their structure, work and perceptive effects. Acoustic properties of sounds, that is quantity, or length, tamber, intensity, pitch, temporal factor are investigated by the acoustic and auditory branch of phonetics.Special laboratory equipments, such as kymograph, spectrograph, oscillograph and intonograph help to obtain the necessary data about prosodic properties of speech sounds.The phonological or functional properties of phonemes, syllables, accent and intonation are investigated by means of special linguistic methods, which help to interpret them as socially significant elements.

Theoretical significance of phonetics is connected with changes in the phonemic system of a language or different languages.Practical significance of phonetics is connected with teaching foreign languages.

22. The Filipino and The Drunkard

I want to tell you a few words about story “The Filipino and the Drunkard” written by Saroyan. The story is about boy and drunkard. The drunkard took a sudden dislike to the small Filipino, telling him to get back, not to crowd among the white people. He didn’t like the fact that the Filipino was wearing good clothes. The boy tried to hide from the drunkard, but he find him. All of this situation finished very sad because the boy killed the drunkard.The main idea of this story is “A fool always rushes to the fore.” (Дурак всегда лезет вперед. Глупый ищет большого места, а умного и в углу видать)The writer uses rather many different SD.I’ve found some SD, for example: repetition (to rage…to rage) shows us boy’s feelings; alliteration (took, to, telling, the, trying) shows us how the drunkard pestered with boy; hyperbole (everyone knew what he had done) shows us bad situation; words with negative connotation (swearing, demanding, pounding, shouted, screamed) shows us boy’s and drunkard’s conflict.I don’t like this story because this situation is not good. I think that would be one can escaping.

21.The Verger.

I want to tell you a few words about story “The Verger” written by S. Maugham. The story is about Edward Forman who was the verger. He has been verger for a long time and he liked his job because he couldn’t neither read nor write. But one day he was discharge. He should open a little shop УTobacco and SweetsФ. In the course of 10 years he acquired no less than a lot of money. One morning the bank manager said that he wanted to talk him about EdwardТs money. ItТs a large sum and he should invest it. He has to do is to read and to sign the papers. If he been able to read and write, he would be verger of church.

The main idea of this story is “It is strange how things come to you”.

The writer uses rather many different SD.

I found some SD, for example: repetition (more and more) shows us EdwardТs emotional experience; alliteration (he, had, heavy, heart, himself) shows us EdwardТs feelings after discharge; metaphor (heavy heart) shows us EdwardТs feelings after discharge; (an idea struck him)

A red-face energetic man Ц these words about the vicar.

I like this story because it is good. All of this situation it is very amusing.

23. Synonyms and Antonyms.

Synonymy is one of modern linguistics' most controversial problems. The very existence of words traditionally called synonyms is disputed by some linguists; the nature and essence of the relationships of these words is hotly debated and treated in quite different ways by the representatives of different linguistic schools.Synonyms are one of the language's most important expressive means.

The skill to choose the most suitable word in every context and every situation is an essential part of the language learning process. 2. Criteria of Synonymy Synonyms may be defined as words with the same denotation, or the same denotative component, but differing in connotations, or in connotative components

In modern research on synonyms the criterion of interchangeability is sometimes applied. According to this, synonyms are defined as words which are interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning. (e.g. to stare – to look our) There are three types of synonyms: ideographic (which he defined as words conveying the same concept but differing in shades of meaning), stylistic (differing in stylistic characteristics) and absolute (coinciding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics) 4. Types of Connotations I. The connotation of intensity интенсивность(e.g. to please, to content, to greatly, fine…; to shout - кричать, to bellow - орать, to yell bawl – громко кричать)

II. The connotation of duration длительность(e.g. to glance, to stare, to glare…)

III. Emotive connotations (e.g lonely – одинокий, single – единственный, solitary – одинокостоящий, alone - один) IV. Evaluative connotation оценивающее (e.g. to produce – производить, to create - создавать) V. The causative connotation причинное VI. The connotation of manner образа действия, манеры (e.g. to stroll – прогуливаться, to stride – шагать большими шагами, to pace – мерными шагами идти, to swagger – шагать важно, to stagger – идти шатаясь) VII. The connotation of attendant circumstances. Обстоятельства. VIII. The connotation of attendant features. Ожидаемое качество.

IX. Stylistic connotations стилистическое дополнение. (e.g. girl, girly девица) The Dominant Synonym All (or, at least, most) synonymic groups have a "central" word of this kind whose meaning is equal to the denotation common to all the synonymic group. This word is called the dominant synonym.The dominant synonym expresses the notion common to all synonyms of the group in the most general way, without contributing any additional information as to the manner, intensity, duration or any attending feature of the referent. So, any dominant synonym is a typical basic-vocabulary word. We use the term antonyms to indicate words of the same category of parts of speech which have contrasting meanings, such as hot - cold, light - dark, happiness - sorrow, to accept - to reject, up - down. antonyms are usually believed to appear in pairs. For instance, the adjective cold may be said to have warm for its second antonym, and sorrow may be very well contrasted with gaiety.On the other hand, a polysemantic word may have an antonym (or several antonyms) for each of its meanings. So, the adjective dull has the antonyms interesting, amusing, entertaining for its meaning of "deficient in interest", clever, bright, capable for its meaning of "deficient in intellect", and active for the meaning of "deficient in activity", etc.Antonymy is not evenly distributed among the categories of parts of speech. Most antonyms are adjectives which is only natural because qualitative characteristics are easily compared and contrasted: high - low, wide - narrow, strong - weak, old - young, friendly - hostile.Verbs take second place, so far as antonymy is concerned. verbal pairs of antonyms are fewer in number. Here are some of them: to lose - to find, to live - to die, to open - to close, to weep - to laugh.Nouns are not rich in antonyms, but even so some examples can be given: friend - enemy, joy - grief, good - evil, heaven - earth, love - hatred.Antonymic adverbs can be subdivided into two groups: a) adverbs derived from adjectives: warmly - coldly, merrily - sadly, loudly - softly; b) adverbs proper: now - then, here - there, ever - never, up - down, in - out.

24. Morphology. Morpheme. Word-Building. Derivation.

Morphology is a branch of grammar studying the form of a word. A word is the main unit of morphology. A word is a generalized representative of all wordforms in which it can be performed.

Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit not possessing the positional independence.

The notion of morpheme includes a root and affixes - prefixes and suffixes. Affixes have a double designation in the language. Some of them are used in the process of wordbuilding, and for wordchanging (derivation). Prefixes in English have solely wordbuilding functions. Suffixes are subdivided into wordbuilding and into derivational. The last ones serve the grammar system of the language.

Root Morpheme In the language a morpheme is represented by its variants called allomorphs. Allomorphs of a morpheme can sometimes be absolutely equal in their sound form such as "fresh - refreshment - freshen", but very often they can be only partially identical - "come - came". Thus the term morpheme denotes the sum of all allomorphs of the morpheme.

Zero morpheme. The zero morpheme is viewed in wordforms not having endings but capable to gain an ending in other forms of the same category.

24.The Beard.

The text I’m going to look at is ‘’The Beard’’ written by Clark. This text is about two men: a young men who had a big beard and a story taller. The first man didn’t want to be shy that’s why he decided to make other people shy of him. So he grew the beard. But the story teller was shocked how this man ate in the dinning car.

I think the main idea of this text is psychology is a great thing. Everybody can change their life using psychology.

SD: inversion(as I was about to seat myself\ to showing the collogued style of speech)

Metaphor (I could feel his eyes)to describe the feelings of the story teller. Alliteration (big, bush, beard)repetitions.

I think this text is very funny and interesting.