- •In the World of English
- •In the World of English
- •1) What is language? Think of as many notions associated with language as you can to complete the spidergram.
- •3) Now read the definitions of language from the encyclopedia and dictionaries, compare them with your own definition. Which one is better? Why?
- •3. Amazing facts about English
- •1) Read the following facts about English. Which one is the most amazing? Why?
- •2) Could you think of some other amazing facts about English? Your language? Share your suggestions with the class.
- •3) Follow-up
- •2) These are some of the sentences that you will hear in the lecture. Read them paying attention to the italicized words and expressions.
- •3. Now follow the Topic Outline while the speaker gives a brief overview of what will be discussed in the commentary. Lecture outline - a topic outline
- •I. Animal and Human Communication Systems
- •II. The Origin of Language
- •III. Statistics on Modern Languages
- •8. Recount the information you heard in the lecture to a partner. Use your notes and the outline to help you.
- •9. Discuss the following with the class. Use the language of agreement / disagreement and persuading from Reference Section at the back of the book to organize your discussion.
- •1. Before you read, discuss the following questions with your partner.
- •2. Read the text below and write out the major stages in the development of English spelling and factors which influenced its change.
- •3. Discuss the following questions with your class.
- •4. Do you know how English in America developed? What factors influenced its development? Discuss with your class.
- •5.Now read the text below and make notes concerning major stages in the development of American English. Language change and the development of american english
- •6. Put the sentences below in chronological order. Use transitional words or phrases if needed between the sentences to form a paragraph.
- •7. Work with your partner, refer to your notes and summarise the information given in the text. You may use the paragraph from the previous exercise as an example.
- •8. Read the text once again and decide if the statements below are true or false according to the article. Correct the false statements.
- •9. Discuss the following questions with your class.
- •1. Before you listen discuss the questions below with your partner.
- •2. You will hear an interview with a journalist Robert MacNeil who wrote a book"Do You Speak American?". As you listen make brief notes on the answers to the following questions:
- •3. Look at these extracts from the report. Complete as many of the sentences as you can before you listen again.
- •4. With a partner reproduce the interview using the questions and responses given below (aa - Avi Arditti):
- •5. Discuss with your groupmates.
- •1. Read the famous words by George Bernard Shaw. Do you agree with his opinion?
- •4. Language Focus
- •2) Here are some more examples of differences between American and British vocabulary. Can you match the American word on the left with its British equivalent on the right?
- •3) With a partner in two minutes write down as many other examples of American vocabulary that is different from British vocabulary as you can.
- •3. Work with a partner. Reproduce the interview using the questions and responses given below (aa - Avi Arditti; rs - Rosanne Skirble):
- •4. Discuss the following questions with your groupmates.
- •Rendering 1. Британский или американский
- •Британский или американский
- •Englishes of the World
- •In groups of four match the explanations (1-9) to the words, phrases and figures. Then answer Questions 10-17.
- •1. What do the following countries have in common? Is it an advantage for these countries? Why? Why not? Discuss with your partner.
- •3. Language facts
- •2) Could you continue the list of language facts? Share your suggestions with the class.
- •Discuss with your partner.
- •2. You are going to listen to the lecture about historic struggle and conflict between Ireland's two languages: Irish and English. Before you listen, preview the content of the lecture.
- •3. Before you listen, preview the vocabulary you will hear in the lecture.
- •1) Fill in the blanks with the appropriate vocabulary items.
- •2) These are some of the sentences that you will hear in the lecture. Read them paying attention to the italicized words and expressions.
- •Languages in Conflict: Irish and English
- •5. Now listen to the lecture again and take your own notes.
- •9. Recount the information you heard in the lecture to a partner. Use your notes and the outline to help you.
- •10. Discuss the following with the class.
- •1. On May 23-25, 2001 Moscow State University hosted an international conference "Global English for Global Understanding". Could you explain its title. What problems were on the agenda?
- •3. Now read the whole article, underline the main idea in each paragraph (if possible). Make an outline of the article. Global understanding for global english
- •1.Read the title of the article. What is it about? What is a democratic linguistic order? Read the introductory part of the article quickly and check.
- •2.Now read the whole article, underline the main idea in each paragraph (if possible). Make an outline of the article. Envisioning a democratic linguistic order
- •Introduction
- •The Structure of the Hegemony of English
- •Language as Environment, not Commodity
- •Democracy Among All Languages
- •Conclusion
- •2. Would you agree or disagree with the following quotations? Why? Why not?
- •3. Skim the text and decide whether its author would agree or disagree with the quotations above.
- •Silent witnesses
- •5. Paraphrase the following extracts from the article and explain what the author means. What is your opinion?
- •6. In pairs discuss the main points the writer makes. Then summarise the article.
- •7. Work in a small group. Discuss the questions below. Then share your ideas with the class.
- •1. You are going to read the three articles about three different languages. Before you read comment on the language facts given below.
- •2. Now look quickly at the articles and decide what languages they are about. What do two of the languages have in common? Try not to take more than one minute.
- •3. Answer questions 1-8 by referring to the three newspaper articles about different languages.
- •4. Which of the following categories of text type would you say the articles belong to?
- •3. Now listen to the interview and answer the questions below.
- •1. Divide into two teams, and debate the problem of the English language globalization.
- •Глобализация и развитие языков
- •1. Look at the picture below. What is its message?
- •3. Now compare your list with those of other students.
- •4. Compare your notes with those written by a partner. Do your partner's notes make you want to add anything to your own or to change anything in your own?
- •5. Listen again to the lecture and decide whether the following statements about it are true or false.
- •1. Researchers who study gender and communication have realized that women and men communicate in different ways.
- •2. The lecturer will talk about how children learn the communication patterns of their gender and about some false stereotypes people have of men’s and women’s communication patterns.
- •3. Now listen to the lecture again and take notes.
- •4. Check your notes to be sure that they are complete. Check if you can:
- •5. Recount the information you heard in the lecture to a partner. Use your notes and the outline to help you.
- •6. In a group of two or four discuss the questions below. At the end of the discussion, a representative from the group should summarise the group’s discussion for the class.
- •1. The following two passages are from the book You Just Don’t Understand by Deborah Tannen. Before you read these passages, answer the questions below.
- •2. Now read and find out whether your suggestions were correct. His Politeness Is Her Powerlessness
- •It's Different Coming From a Man
- •3. Work with your partner. Discuss the questions below. Then share your ideas with the class.
- •Rendering1. Мужское и женское в языке
- •Мужское и женское в языке
- •1. Paraphrase the quotations below. Which one do you agree with? Why?
- •2. Euphemistically Speaking
- •2) Do the quiz below. Then compare your answers with a partner. Quiz: Euphemistically Speaking
- •3) Work with your partner and discuss the following questions.
- •4) Here are some more examples of euphemisms.
- •3. Look at two web pages from an on-line translator below. What do they illustrate? Does political correctness pose any difficulties for translators and interpreters?
- •4. What is political correctness? Does the term ‘political correctness’ overlap with ‘euphemism’? What is the difference?
- •2) Is it a good idea to rewrite famous works of literature to make them more politically correct? Discuss with your class.
- •1. You are going to read an article The World of doublespeak by William Lutz.
- •2. Read the article and write out the examples of doublespeak and their meanings.
- •The world of doublespeak
- •3. Check your answers.
- •3. Now read the article and check your answers. Life under the Chief Doublespeak Officer
- •(From William Lutz, Life under the Chief Doublespeak Officer http://www.Dt.Org/html/ Doublespeak.Html)
- •4. Work with your partner, discuss the following questions, then share your ideas with the class.
- •1. Before you listen think of some political speech you know (e.G. M.L. King’s “I Have a Dream” speech) and try to answer the following questions.
- •6. In pairs discuss the following questions.
- •In this project you are going to analyse the language politicians use.
- •1. Before you listen discuss the questions in pairs.
- •3. Reproduce the interview using the questions and responses given below (aa - Avi Arditti; rs - Rosanne Skirble):
- •4. In class discuss the following questions.
- •Политическая корректность, или языковой такт
- •«Черный человек». Политкорректность в русском языке
- •3. Do you know any funny stories / anecdotes about translators / interpreters? Share them with the class.
- •Deadlines
- •To make a long story short...
- •1. You are going to read the text under the title ‘Ambassadors of the Word’. Who could be called an ambassador of the word? Why? Discuss with your partner.
- •2. Look through the text quickly and check your suggestions. Ambassadors of the Word
- •3. Now read the text more carefully and from the ideas and opinions expressed in the article, decide which of the sentences are likely to be true (t) or false (f).
- •4. Match the words in column 1 with the meanings in column 2.
- •5. Comment on the following quotations. Which do you agree with? Why?
- •6. Work in pairs, discuss the following questions. Then, share your ideas with the class.
- •1. You are going to listen to the interview between the journalist and Fiona Guiffs, the translator. What are the possible advantages and disadvantages of this profession? Discuss with your partner.
- •2. Now listen to the interview and complete the chart below.
- •3. Now look at these extracts from the interview. Complete as many of the sentences as you can before you listen again.
- •4. In pairs discuss the following questions.
- •2. Now listen to the interview and make notes on Michael Gove and Professor Tony Briggs’s opinions. Compare your notes with those of your partner.
- •3. Read the following statements and decide whether they are True (t) or False (f). Correct the false ones.
- •6. Discuss the following questions.
- •1. What do you know about computer translation systems? How do they work?
- •2. Now read the text below and find out.
- •In the near future
- •3. Answer the questions below.
- •1. Have you ever used on-line translation services? Was your experience successful?
- •2. What problems could a person face using online translation tools? Read the article and find out. Getting lost in the translation
- •4. Answer the questions below.
- •5. Work in pairs, discuss the following questions. Then share your finding with the class. To organize you discussion use the useful language from Reference Section.
- •2. Now work in your groups and match the words on the left with their definitions on the right. Consult the dictionary if necessary. Add them to the categories you have.
- •3. Provide the Russian equivalents for words and expressions 1-26 from Exerscise 2.
- •Профессия переводчик
- •Нужны ли переводчики?
- •Решение мировой проблемы перевода
- •Переводчик в кармане
- •Inbound text
- •Voice-over, voiceover
- •Useful Language
- •Inviting a response
- •Interrupting
- •Strong agreement / disagreement
- •Persuading
- •Framing an argument
- •Listening 2. Male-Female Conversation as Cross-cultural Communication
- •В мире английского языка
- •In the world of english
Переводчик в кармане
Группа ученых из Карлсруэ разработала компьютер, способный синхронно переводить доклады и телевизионные новости. В будущем планируется создание переносного «полиглота», которым сможет воспользоваться любой человек.
Человек что-то произносит, видно, как шевелятся его губы, но не слышно ни звука. Зато из громкоговорителя доносится фраза: «Благодарю вас за то, что вы пришли». Кто говорит? Это компьютер, обладающий искусственным голосом. Он распознает слова оратора в процессе произнесения и тут же переводит их с английского на немецкий.
Это не трюк и не феномен чревовещания «на продвинутом уровне». Техника вот то волшебное слово, которое таит в себе обещание: в будущем каждый сможет разговаривать на иностранном языке, просто нажав на кнопку. Так, например, турист, куда бы ни занесла его судьба, сможет поговорить о погоде и политике по-абхазски, на хинди или инуктикуте.
Такие интересные вещи придумывают в институте под названием «Интеракт», совместном детище Университета Карлсруэ и американского Университета Карнеги-Меллона (Питтсбург). Исследователи поставили перед собой дерзкую цель. «Мы хотим добиться исчезновения языковых границ», — говорит директор института Алекс Вайбель.
Правда, прежде чем «автоматический чревовещатель» сможет служить людям, предстоит еще много сделать. Техника первого поколения непрактична: чтобы фиксировать электрические сигналы, возникающие при сокращении мышц речевого аппарата, нужно прикрепить электроды к лицу и шее. Пока компьютер различает всего 30 слов, и то при условии, что «немой оратор» не позволяет себе ни малейшей улыбки.
Гораздо дальше продвинулись переводческие компьютерные программы, которые улавливают беззвучную артикуляцию и тут же переводят текст на иностранный язык. Если же исходный текст озвучен, программа и вовсе способна справиться с задачами, которые до сих пор были не под силу компьютеру. В Карлсруэ можно увидеть, как она синхронно переводит на английский новостную программу китайского телевидения: внизу экрана появляются титры с вполне понятным текстом. Возможен также перевод докладов или выступлений в парламенте. Правда, немецкий язык пока получается довольно ломаным, гораздо лучше выглядит результат при переводе с английского на испанский. Еще недавно вряд ли кто-нибудь мог поверить, что компьютер способен переводить живую речь. Даже если ему предлагался безупречно сформулированный письменный документ, в итоге получался смешной бред: язык сбивает электронику с толку многозначностью слов и выражений. И правда, откуда компьютеру знать, что выражение «намылить шею» никак не касается банных процедур?
Искусственный переводчик годился только для узкого круга специальных областей. Компания Microsoft, например, создала в Интернете постоянно увеличивающийся банк данных, в который поступают рекомендации по решению проблем в области программного обеспечения. Терминология обозрима, форма выражения достаточно шаблонная — тут и машина справится. Перевод около 200 тыс. документов на пять языков — поистине геркулесова работа — уже сейчас на 90% осуществляется автоматически.
Однако разработчики из Карлсруэ и Питтсбурга хотят достичь большего. «Мы станем первыми, кто сделает машинный перевод эффективным практически в любой области», — утверждает Алекс Вайбель. Это возможно, поскольку появился совершенно новый метод: все больше ученых предпочитают не «учить компьютер языку», а прибегать к помощи Интернета. Сеть лучше всех знает, как подобрать наиболее точный перевод, — ведь она полна текстами, которые уже имеют аналоги на разных языках.
Какие это тексты? На общедоступных серверах размещены, например, тысячи документов ЕС и ООН; новости информационных агентств выходят сразу на многих языках, не надо забывать и о классике — например, Библии. Другими словами, чуть ли не любая фраза однажды уже была переведена. Компьютеру остается только заимствовать этот богатый опыт.
Понимать язык при этом не требуется. Компьютер просто сопоставляет одну языковую пару за другой, предложение за предложением. В итоге он знает, когда английское слово bank переводится как «банк», а когда как «берег», и запоминает, что вероятность «берега» возрастает, если в контексте упоминаются водоемы. Компьютер как бы выучивает новый язык.
«Главная прелесть в том, что все может осуществляться автоматически, при минимальном вмешательстве человека», — говорит коллега Вайбеля из Питтсбурга Таня Шульц. В этом коренное отличие нового способа от всего, что существовало раньше, когда лингвисты занимались трудоемкой работой, вручную пичкая машину огромным количеством правил, исключений, разных толкований. Этот процесс был бесконечным, и с каждым новым языком приходилось все начинать сначала.
Статистика же не заботится о правилах и информации обо всем на свете. Здесь приоритетными являются мощность компьютера и объем обрабатываемых данных: чем больше «запомнит» компьютер, тем точнее будет перевод — по крайней мере, в теории.
Пока программа, разработанная в Карлсруэ, гораздо чаще использует канцелярские выражения, поскольку существенная часть данных получена ею из документов Европейского союза. Но это вопрос времени. «На пашей стороне — возрастающая мощность процессоров и растущий объем данных, — говорит директор института Вайбель. — Думаю, через 10 лет этим способом будут пользоваться все».
Программист Франц Йозеф Ох, один из основоположников статистического перевода, работает в компании Google, создающей поисковые системы. Два года назад его заметили на конкурсе, организованном американскими военными. Его программа после непродолжительной тренировки справлялась с текстами на хинди быстрее конкурентов. Работая с Google, статистик имеет дело с гигантским объемом данных: в памяти поисковой системы хранится 16 млрд. слов. Ох может тренировать свою программу в освоении всех тонкостей и оборотов языка. Целью является как можно более точный перевод на английский.
Вайбель из Карлсруэ пока не может на это рассчитывать. Его электронному синхронисту нелегко справиться со всеми превратностями устной речи, ведь он вынужден сталкиваться с заиканием, словами-паразитами и бесконечными повторениями: «Мы хотели, э.., на чем я остановился?» При этом не исключено, что кто-то кашляет, смеется или хлопает дверью...
А вот с хорошим качеством речи компьютеры успешно справляются уже сейчас. Многие врачи и адвокаты пользуются звукозаписывающими системами с автоматическим распознаванием языка. Программа Dragon Naturally Speaking, разработанная лидером этого рынка — компанией Nuance, обещает распознавать до 99 из 100 слов. Но это возможно только в тихой обстановке, и говорящий должен все время находиться на одинаковом расстоянии от микрофона.
На шумном заседании парламента компьютер должен ориентироваться сам. Вайбель признает, что в такой обстановке машине работать чрезвычайно трудно. Для начала программа должна научиться отделять главное от второстепенного, делить речь на фразы и передавать смысл высказывания.
В других областях работа продвигается быстрее. Сейчас тестируется устройство для медиков, работающих в зоне бедствия, которое владеет основной лексикой, нужной для проведения осмотра и оказания помощи.
В числе разработок ученых из Карлсруэ и Питтсбурга есть целый ряд устройств, предназначенных, скорее, для секретных агентов. В их числе специальные очки, на стекла которых перевод поступает бегущей строкой. Есть также прибор, способный создавать голоса буквально из ничего. Он представляет собой пластину с множеством крошечных динамиков, посылающих ультразвуковой сигнал. Волны направлены так, чтобы их было слышно только в определенной точке. Этим способом можно, например, направить перевод одному конкретному человеку в наушниках, причем его соседи ничего не заметят.
Уже намечена первая область применения электронного переводчика-«чревовещатели». Разработчика Таня Шульц считает, что в будущем сенсоры будут импланироваться человеку, чтобы не приклеивать их к телу. Тот, кто осмелится на подобный шаг, сможет не только беспрепятственно общаться на иностранных языках, но и использовать это устройство в качестве телефона. Так, если вам позвонят во время спектакля, вы сможете спокойно принять звонок, не мешая окружающим.
(Манфред Дворшак, Der Spiegel 2005)
GLOSSARY: TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETATION
‘A’ language
The interpreter’s dominant language, into which he or she is competent to interpret professionally. Usually, but not always, this is the interpreter’s native language.
Accreditation
A formal process for evaluating the competence of a translator, which may include examinations, a review of education and experience, etc., conducted by a professional association, such as the American Translators Association.
Accredited translator
Translator who has received accreditation from a professional institute such as the ITI or the ATA. Accreditation - a requirement for membership - is usually issued on the basis of examination and experience.
Active languages
(1) The language or languages into which an interpreter is competent to interpret professionally.
(2) The term is also used in meetings & conventions to mean the target languages into which interpreting is provided. For example, in a convention where all presentations are to be given in English and interpretation is provided into Spanish, French, and Russian, these three would be the active languages, while English would be the passive language.
Adaptation
Modifying a text to make it suitable for a different purpose, target readership, region or country. Regional adaptation is a part of localisation. In translation, the adaptation can be carried out, for example by the translator, an editor or a copywriter. Whether it is best to adapt the source text before translation or the translated target text depends on the situation.
An adaptation is aimed at bringing the target text in line with the spirit of the language, thus producing a text which is not obviously a translation.
Ad hoc interpreting
Spoken translation between two languages in informal conversations between two or more people. Used, for example in business meetings, for phone calls, during site visits and social events. The term is sometimes used loosely to include consecutive interpreting.
Advertising translator
Although there are translators and companies that specialize in translating advertisements, the practice is not recommended. Advertising should not be translated, but rather adapted to the target language.
Alignment
A process that consists of aligning, i.e. creating equivalents, segment by segment, between a source text and the corresponding target text. The resulting table of equivalents will then be used as a translation memory. Alignment thus makes it possible to use previous translations carried out without translation support software. Even with the help of special software programmes, alignment operations nevertheless still require a considerable amount of manual intervention.
Ambiguity
A frequent shortcoming of source texts. An ambiguous phrase to be translated presents at least two possibilities for the translator, who thus has at best a 50% chance of making a mistake if the context does not clarify the issue. The question can therefore only be resolved by contacting the author of the source text.
Audience-> Target audience
Automatic recognition
This is a technique that permits the automatic recognition of terms in the text to be translated by an electronic dictionary associated with CAT software, and a proposed equivalent in the target language (as long as the dictionary contains these terms). Within the framework of technical translations, this function makes it possible to guarantee terminological consistency throughout the entire text.
Automatic translation
An information technology that uses the computer's calculating power to analyse the structure of each statement or phrase of the text to be translated (source text), to break down this structure into elements that are simple to translate, and to build up a phrase using the same structure in the target language. This also involves the use of extremely voluminous multi-language dictionaries and thousands of translated pages (both source and target).
Back translation
A translation of a translation. It is a common misconception that the quality of a translation can be judged by having a second translator translate a translated text back into its source language. In fact, the opposite is true; the worse the translation, the closer the back translation will adhere to the original. The reason for this is that a bad translation normally follows very closely the wording of the original, but not the meaning.
Background information
Information relating to the subject matter of the source text or the topic of discussion. Facilitates the translator's or interpreter's task by providing context, terminology, definitions, etc.
Background text
Text in the source or target language providing background information about the subject matter of the text to be translated.
Bilingual (adj or n)
Someone with communicative skills in two languages. The term is often reserved for someone with native or near-native proficiency in two languages. Bilingualism is one of several required abilities of a translator or interpreter.
‘B’ language
A language that a translator or interpreter can speak, read and write almost as well as their native language (or A language), and well enough to translate into as well as out of. (See also C language)
Booth
Interpretation booths are divided into fixed, which are built into some conference rooms, and mobile, which are set up and dismantled wherever needed, typically in hotels and convention centers.
Calculation of text volume
Determining the volume of a text is not only essential in the field of translation (submitting quotations, invoicing), but also plays an important part in various stages of processing natural languages (analyses, statistics, comparisons).
However, the unit of calculation applied differs from one region to another: in the Anglo-Saxon world, on the one hand, it is still common practice to calculate text volume by counting words - a method dating back to the days of the typewriter. Alternatively, in German-speaking countries, and to some extent in France , text volume is expressed in the number of characters (or standard lines).
In a multilingual environment, therefore, the only viable and truly accurate method of calculation is to determine the number of characters (or standard lines).
Calibrated page -> Standard page
Certified court interpreter
A person who has passed an examination to assess competency to interpret during court proceedings. In the US, although the requirements for certification of court interpreters vary according to the jurisdiction, they generally do not demand a high level of competence.
Not to be confused with a legal interpreter.
Certified interpreter
In the US, there is no national interpreter certification program (other than for Federally Certified Court Interpreters), although various agencies attempt certification procedures, with varying degrees of success.
Certified translation
A translation that has been reviewed by a translator or translation company and considered an accurate and correct reflection of the source text. To have legal status, certification must be performed before a notary public.
‘C’ language
A language that a translator or interpreter can read and understand well enough to translate out of, but cannot write or speak well enough to translate or interpret into. (See also A language and B language.)
Collocation
A group of words that usually describe a concept, an object or an action. A collocation, for example "sliding wheel" or "law on banks" is considered - on a level of terminology - to be a self-contained term, and will appear as such in a glossary. Automatic searching for collocations in the source text makes it possible to create a glossary prior to translation.
Computer-aided translation (CAT) computer-assisted ~, machine-aided or -assisted ~
Translation with the aid of computer programs, such as translation memory, terminology management and localisation tools, designed to reduce the translator’s workload and increase consistency of style and terminology. Not to be confused with machine translation!
Concordance
Relating a term to its context. In computer assisted translation (CAT), this more specifically applies to a function making it possible to obtain the list of contexts for the term, in order to define its sense more precisely and its equivalent in the target language.
Conference interpreter
Interpreter with highly specialised skills who provides simultaneous interpretation of a speakers words in one direction only from one language into another.
Conference translator
A person who translates written text intended for use during a conference, or generated during a conference (such as conference proceedings, etc.) Sometimes the term is erroneously applied to a conference interpreter.
Consecutive interpreting
Oral translation of a speaker’s words into another language when the speaker has finished speaking or pauses for interpreting. More formal than ad hoc interpreting and used, for example in formal business meetings, for negotiations, training sessions or lectures. (cf. simultaneous interpreting)
Consistency
Quality of a text in which the same object or the same concept is always expressed by the same term (terminological consistency), or where the same action or idea is always expressed by exactly the same phrase or group of phrases (phraseological consistency).
In technical texts, a single item or operation is frequently mentioned on several occasions. Here, a phraseological dictionary can be added to the dictionary of terms, since both make it possible to apply various automatic processes that reduce production and translation costs.
Moreover, and generally speaking, a respect for consistency simplifies the comprehension of the text and makes it possible to avoid many cases of ambiguity.
Controlled language
Language with a restricted vocabulary and restricted rules of formulation. Used, for example, in technical documentation to make the text easier to understand for users or for non-native speakers and to facilitate machine translation.
Copywriting
Writing of advertising or publicity copy. It cannot be stressed too strongly that advertising copy will not translate satisfactorily due to the different cultural contexts and advertising cultures of other countries and regions. Adverts for foreign countries should therefore always be produced in those countries. There are some advertising agencies who provide this service.
Court interpreter
Interpreter with special subject knowledge, providing interpretation during legal proceedings. Requirements regarding accreditation and certification for court interpreting vary from country to country.
Dictionary
As opposed to a glossary, a dictionary contains two or more languages in a specialised and abridged form. The most basic form of dictionary is simply a table of equivalent words. The complexity of languages and their usage, however, rapidly creates the need for more complex data bases. These include, for example, functions for the processing of abbreviations and synonyms.
Dialect
Every major language has regional and class variations, but more importantly, every language also has clear standards and guidelines for correct and incorrect grammar and usage.
Although there may be times when it is appropriate to write in a regional or class dialect (targeted advertising comes to mind), business communications (and this includes technical writings, contracts, legislation, financial statements, etc.) must always be written in standard language.
Dominant language -> Language of habitual use
Editing -> Revising
Electronic dictionary
A working dictionary on the computer (hard disk or CD-ROM). The functional operation of these dictionaries varies, depending on their editors. When associated with CAT software, these dictionaries make it possible to recognise source terms recorded within the dictionary and to propose an equivalent translation automatically.
Earbud
Earbuds are small, lightweight earphones that sit in the outer part of the ear.
Earphone
Earphones are lightweight variations on the headphone, designed to fit on, in, or around the ear. They are more comfortable and portable than headphones and can cover one or both ears.
EN 15038
European standard “Translation Services – Service requirements”, published in 2006.
Equivalence
The concept that translation or interpretation must strive to transfer meaning from one language to its equivalent in another, taking into consideration the class, culture, profession, etc. of both the source and the target text or speech.
Equivalent language
The language of the equivalent time period and class or profession in the other language. For example, if the source text is an article published in a US medical journal, and the target language is Spanish, the equivalent language would be the language used in medical journal articles published in Spanish-speaking countries at around the same timeframe as the original.
Escort interpreter
An interpreter who travels with an individual or small delegation during technical, state visits, trade shows, etc., usually performing whispering interpreting or wireless interpreting.
Fixed booth
A fixed booth is an interpretation booth that is built permanently into some conference centers, as opposed to a mobile booth, which can be assembled and disassembled and is set up in meeting rooms when needed.
FM interpretation equipment
Interpretation equipment that transmits sound over FM radio frequencies. FM systems consist of a transmitter and a receiver. The advantages of FM interpretation systems are their ease of installation, reliability, and wide range. In cases where secrecy is desired, the wide range can be a disadvantage, as a person with a receiver tuned to the proper frequency can sometimes hear perfectly from as far away as 1000 yards or more, even from a different building. Radio frequency systems are also more susceptible to radio interference than IR systems.
Freelance translator
Self-employed translator, who may undertake work for translation agencies, localisation companies and/or directly for end clients. Often specialises in one or more particular fields, such as legal, financial, commercial or technical.
Free translation
1. Translation in which more emphasis is given to the overall meaning of the text than to the exact wording (cf. literal translation); 2. Translation completed free of charge. Offered by some translation companies – often online, and usually using machine translation programs. Can be used for gisting, but never of a sufficient quality for publication without comprehensive revision by a human translator.
Gisting
Producing a rough or outline translation of a text to provide an insight into the subject and overall content of the source text. Being less expensive and less time-consuming than a “proper” (or “custom”) translation, gisting can be used, for example, to determine whether a text contains useful information before a custom translation is commissioned. The term gisting is sometimes used in connection with machine translation, which is used by some translation providers for that purpose.
Globalisation , globalization
The process of developing and manufacturing products intended for worldwide distribution. Most commonly applied to software, but also used for websites and other publications and products, it covers two aspects: internationalisation and localisation.
Glossary
An invaluable tool for the translator. Beside making use of the wealth of specialised mono- and multilingual online-glossaries on the Internet, most translators compile and maintain their own subject-, customer- and project-specific glossaries. Companies publishing documentation in several languages can also benefit from maintaining multi-language glossaries of their own. This not only makes tranlators’ work easier, but – by reducing the amount of terminology research required – speeds up subsequent translation projects. In addition, it ensures consistent and correct terminology usage in all languages. Some translators and most translation companies offer glossary compilation and maintenance, either as a separate service or as part of a translation agreement.
Headphone
Simultaneous interpretation equipment includes a variety of headphones and earphones; some for the interpreters, others for the participants.
Headset
Any of various types of participants' headset-receiver sets. Sometimes the term "headset" is used to refer to headphones or earphones. A headphone or earphone needs to be connected to a receiver in order for the participant to be able to tune in to the proper channel and hear the interpretation.
Human Translator
Human translators are native speakers who physically translate the text themselves which results in a 100% accurate translation vs the 70% accurate translation that you get from machine translation.