IV. Answer the questions.

1. What two countries are located in Ireland?

2. Where did the Protestants in Ireland come from?

3. What does the term "Plantation of Ulster" mean?

4. What do you know about the IRA?

5. Is there any hope that the conflict in Northern Ireland can be solved? How?

6. Why is an Irishman often called Paddy?

7. Where do many of the non-white population in Britain live and work?

8. Do many people come to Britain from continental Europe?

9. Has British culture been enriched through its contact with other cultures?

10. What can you say about the service sector in Britain? Has immigration affected its work?

Points for discussion

1. The reasons of the conflict in Northern Ireland and the solution of the problem.

2. The non-white population in Britain and its contribution to British life.

3. The movement of people to Britain today as a result of Britain's membership of the European Union and the consequences.

Stonehenge and Avebury

Stonehenge is the most famous prehistoric monument in Britain. The number of visitors who come to see it increases year after year and is now about half a million annually.

Stonehenge is located in the middle of Salisbury Plain, to the northwest of Southamp­ton, and it won't take you long to get there by car or coach from London. It is a source of constant wonder. Even now, nearly 4,000 years after it was built, large numbers of tourists come to see it, especially on June 21 when the sun rises immediately over the Heel Stone of the circle and casts its shadow on the Altar Stone in the middle. But what does it all mean, and who were the people who built it?

It was started about 2700 B.C. by the late Neolithic people (or people of the Stone Age). Then somewhere around 2000 B.C. the Beaker people continued to build it. The people were named Beakers by the archaeologists when they found many pottery vessels in their graves. Stonehenge was built at various stages, and was finished at about 1500 B.C. Its oldest part is the outer ditch and circular bank. Inside the bank there were 56 pits which are known as the Aubrey Holes after their discoverer, John Aubrey. Later a double semicircle of Bluestones was put up, and these stones were brought from the mountains in Wales by land, sea and river. At about 2000 B.C. the Bluestones were removed, and two double circles were built. The inner one had the shape of a horseshoe. The cir­cles consisted of huge upright stones each weighing about 25 tons. Some of the stones were supposed to be brought from a place about 32 kilometres north from Stone­henge, and others from Wales.

T oday people wonder how these vast stones were transported so far and erected. Some people believe that they were transported by sledge, and were erected by using a lever and piled up timber. The lintel stones (horizontal ones) were raised and put into position over the two vertical stones. So we see that the ancient people were very clever, and could construct huge monuments though they did not have machines, and their tools were very primitive. But what was Stonehenge used for and what was it built to fulfil? Over the years many theories have appeared and people continue to present their versions.

One speculation is that its builders were pun-worshippers and that the monument as a temple to the Sun.

On the other hand, many scientists believe that it was used as a calendar to establish a fixed point in the year from which the annual calendar could be counted. However, the most interesting theory is that of Professor Gerald Hawkins. He filmed the sunrise and showed that the sun rose exactly over the Altar Stone. He also proved that the stone circle could contain other exact astronomical measurements. Using a computer, he drew imaginary lines between points of the stone circle and extended them to the horizon. Hawkins discovered that in 1500 B.C., I when Stonehenge was completed, the lines between the main stones pointed exactly to like extreme midwinter and midsummer positions of the sun and moon. But his most interesting discoveries were connected with the eclipses. Hawkins found that by using the 56 Aubrey Holes outside the stone circle, Stonehenge could be used as a very exact computer to forecast the time of the next eclipse.

As the ancient people worhsipped the sun and moon the eclipses were very important events. Even today there are many people in the world who believe that eclipses are very special events, when the day turns into night just in a few minutes, and the animals and birds become very excited, and the wind comes from nowhere every person becomes very excited. Just imagine how ancient people would behave who had such primitive knowledge of the world.

At one time, people thought that Stonehenge was a temple used by the Druids. The Druids were a religious group among the Celtic tribes which inhabited Britain in ancient times. Some people believe that they were a group of priests, while others consider that they acted as doctors or medicine-men. Perhaps, they were both priests (shamans) and doctors who helped people morally and physically. When the Romans came they forbade them to carry out their practices, because some of them were connected with human sacrifice and cannibalism.

Today the traditions of the Druids are kept alive by members of a sect called the "Most Ancient Order of Druids" who carry out mystic ceremonies at dawn on Midsummer's Day, or the summer solstice. Every year, they meet at Stonehenge to greet the first midsummer sunlight as it falls on the stones and they put symbolic elements of fire, water, bread, salt and a rose. There is also a big festival of pop music attended by many young people. The celebration of the summer solstice is quite popular in different countries of the world. In Belarus, for example, the tradition of celebrating the Night of Ivan Kupala is also connected with the summer solstice.

T he other famous ancient site also located in Wiltshire is the village of Avebury. It dates back to about 2000 B.C., and includes a hill which is the largest man-made mound in Europe. On the hill you can see standing stones also set in the form of a circle. However, many of the stones have either been destroyed or removed, but still those which remain make a great impression on visitors Of course, Avebury has never been as popular as Stonehenge.

Besides the many theories of the scientists about Stonehenge there is one legend which is quite funny. According to it the devil built it in one single night.

He flew backwards and forwards be­tween Ireland and Salisbury Plain carrying the stones one by one, and putting them in place. While he worked he laughed to himself because he knew that doing so people would have to think how the stones were brought to the site. But a friar or monk who was hiding in a ditch nearby saw this. He surprised the devil and made him very angry. The devil took a stone and threw it hitting the friar on the heel. According to this legend the stone which the devil threw is known as the "heel stone". It still can be seen standing by the side of the road and it really has the form of the heel of a shoe. As for the stones geologists have shown that the stones were brought by the ancient people as far away as from south Wales and north Wiltshire, and not from Ireland.

Comprehension Check