Sequence of tenses in complex sentences

Generally, in complex sentences with all types of subordinate clauses, except the object clause, the sequence of the tenses in the pair “verb in the main clause - verb in the subordinate clause” is logical and based on sense and general rules of the use of tenses. The verb in the subordinate clause may be in any tense that reflects the actual time of the action and conveys the meaning correctly in the pair with the verb in the main clause, for example:

She goes for a walk in the park when the weather is good.

She went for a walk in the park when the weather was good.

Note: According to the rules of the use of tenses, the Simple Present is used instead of the future in the adverbial clauses of time and condition referring to the future, for example:

He will ask her about it when he sees her tomorrow.

She will visit them tomorrow if she has the time.

Sequence of tenses in sentences with object clauses Present or future in the main clause

If the verb in the main clause is in the present or future tense, the verb in the object subordinate clause may be in any tense that conveys the meaning correctly according to sense, logic and general rules of the use of tenses, for example:

I think (that) he lives on Rose Street.

I don’t know if she is in town.

Past tense in the main clause

If the verb in the main clause is in the past tense, the verb in the object subordinate clause should be also used in one of the past tenses.

I thought (that) he lived on Rose Street.

I didn’t know if she was in town.

If a general truth is expressed in the object subordinate clause, the Present tense is normally used in the subordinate clause despite the fact that the Past tense is used in the main clause, for example:

Newton discovered that the force of gravity pulls all bodies to the Earth.

The choice of a past tense in the object subordinate clause

If the action in the subordinate clause took place at the same time as the action in the main clause, the Simple Past (or the Past Continuous) is used in the subordinate clause, for example:

I thought that he worked at a bank.

If the action in the subordinate clause took place earlier than the action in the main clause, the Past Perfect (or the Past Perfect Continuous) is used in the subordinate clause, for example:

I knew that he had already left for Rome.

If the action in the subordinate clause took place later than the action in the main clause, the Future in the Past is used in the subordinate clause (“would” is used instead of “will”), for example:

I wasn’t sure that he would be at home.

27) Form words

Words fall into classes. We distinguish notional and structural words. NW have a distinct lexical meaning, they all have a referent or a denotatum, all of them have a definite independent function in the sentence. SW have a meaning, but they are not lexically independent, have no referent, no nominating function. Their meaning is usually of a more general character, have no independent syntactic function in the sentence, either express relations between words in a sentence as reflecting the relations between fenomenal of reality or they may express certain modal and expressive meaning (particles, interjections, modal verbs).

The notional parts of speech constitute open class – they are extendable, new units are constantly created. The structural pos constitute close classes, but it doesn’t mean they are completely stable (conversion, formation, meaning).

Some linguists: we should be careful in saying that form words are completely stable. However within a closed class there may be new formations, mostly through conversion or from a word group. At the same time within an open class there may be closed subclasses (auxiliaries).

Some linguists have different opinions about the nature of the class. Some linguists consider interjections as notional, despite of the fact that they have no referent, they have an important modal and expressive meaning which is often the semantic dominant of the utterance. Besides they may function independently as a one-member sentence. Some linguists refer them to structural classes. In some grammars we don’t find any mention of the class. Some older grammarians (Sweet, Kruisinga) considered modal verbs to be a special class or group.

Prepositions express relations between the elements of the sentence within word groups between the heads and their adjuncts. They usually mark subordinate information (connection). In a sense they correlate with cases. There are prepositions which mark only case relations. By, with – instrumental case relations, to – dative case, of – possessive case. Переводятся падежной формой.

As far as classification is concerned according to their meaning, usage and word building.

Meaning: groups of preposition with common meaning (of time, place, direction, reason).

Usage: 1) prep used in their main dictionary meaning 2) prep the use of which depends on the words which they follow (depend on, accuse of) 3) prep which only mark case relations (by, with, of, to)

Word building structure: 1) simple 2) derivative (behind, below, across) 3) compound (outside, inside, within) 4) composite (in front of, with the help of)

There is a theoretical problem which concerns their meaning – if they have or don’t have a lexical meaning. The preposition doesn’t nominate things, only give indication of certain relations, proceeding from this Steel consider them as units that have no lexical meaning. Smirnizkiy and Ilich claim that the very character of the relation which prep indicate is their lexical meaning.

There is a compromised point of view: structural pos can be viewed as combining the lexical and grammatical aspects.

The preposition has double connection: develops from the previous word and connects with the following one. Detached preposition which is impossible in language with developed cases: 1) special questions (What are you looking at?) 2) in limiting attribute clauses (the book I have been looking for) 3) parts of the constructions (the doctor hurriedly sent for) 4) PV

Some words can function as preps and conjunctions (after, before), prep and adverbs (since), postfixes and preps (to look about, to put on).

Conjunction is an important connector between words and sentences (predicative units). There may be at least 3 treatments (Il’ish): 1) it’s an independent element for which a special term should be used 2) it should be treated as part of the member of the sentence they belong to (it refers to prepositions too) 3) both conj and prep must be put outside the part they introduce as belonging to the sentence.

These approaches are more typical of particles.

Their function – they are connectors.

Classification: 1) meaning and functioning: coordinate or subordinate

Coordinate conj are subdivided on the logical principle: copulative (and), adversative (but), disjunctive (or), causative (for, that’s why, therefore).

Subordinate conj: the classification depends on the kind of clause they introduce (as well as conjunctive and relative words). Because – a conjunction of reason

I don’t know when he will come (союзное наречие)

I don’t know what you mean (conjunctive pronoun which introduces an object clause)

I don’t know how you feel (союзное наречие)

2) word building structure: simple, derivative, compound and composite

Inf + conj = He stepped as if t let me pass.

Part + conj = as if wishing to saying something

Part 2 + conj = as if struck by something

Particles are form words which have an important modal and expressive meaning. Sometimes they are used particularly to emphasize something. (a split infinitive – His first impulse would be to not go further. I have you to clearly understand me).

There may be at least 3 treatments (Il’ish): 1) it’s an independent element for which a special term should be used 2) it should be treated as part of the member of the sentence they belong to 3) must be put outside the part they introduce as belonging to the sentence.

The description of particles is characterized by great diversity of classifications and a list of words which are treated as particles (He alone didn’t know anything). According to statistics the richest in particles and words used as particles are ancient Greek, Russian and German.

Generally part are divided into: 1) emphatic – specifying, expressive, modal (even, just, never, exactly, right) 2) scaling (exactly, only, barely, nearly, solemnly)

There are also polysemus particles (still, yet, simply, only, well).

Some linguists introduce term: verbal particles or expressive adverbs. They group them together with modal verbs.

Interjections form a class of words which are uninflected and which have some modal and expressing meanings. Like other form words they don’t have nominal function. Smirnizkiy: we may oppose them to the words of intellectual semantics. Their meaning is often derived from the context (oh – fear, horror, intreaty; why – surprise, impatience, disagreement)

The spheres of communication for interjections: 1) emotional appraisal 2) will 3) ethiquet (gratitude, excuses, greeting).

Inter may function as sentence equivalents (1 member sent). Inter were singled out as independent lexical grammar class by Warron in his Latin grammar (1 century BC)

As to the points of view there are at least 3 approaches: 1) it is a heterogenius syntactic class outside the division of words into parts of speech (Buslaev, Peshkovsky, Paul) 2) they are a part of speech but standard apart (Fortunatov – full and partial words (interj); Vinogradov – they are close to modal words – all of them can function as a sentence (а это законченная мысль) 3) they are classified together with other pos as a class: particles together with prepositions and conjunctions (Jesperson). Interjections are close to adverbs as they are uninflected but they have a certain semantic context.

Modal verbs have no morphology and can’t be members of the sentence. They express subjunctive modality. Earlier linguists considered them something like adverbs. Sweet and Cruisinger – modal verbs refer to the whole sentence and express the speaker’s attitude. The modal dominant key word can be the member of the sentence. They can’t be considered as pos.

Classified according to the kind of modality: 1) probability (may) 2) assurance (must, should) 3) uncertainty (can, could).

They may be 1 member sentences.

Apparently, really, unfortunately – Smirnizkiy and Ivanova think that these words are adverbs in the function of modal verbs.

There are 2 main treatments of modal words: 1) they are modal words 2) they are adverbs which function together with modal verbs.

No parts of speech. There are words which some linguists call no parts of speech. Such words can’t be referred to any class (yes, no, ease).

We should distinguish between structural pos (form words which are mostly connectors) and structural words (usual words, notional words, which may also function as structural words – auxiliaries, вспомогательные слова).