16) Наречие

Ad + verbum = под глаголом

Adverb is characterized by distribution, grammar patterns, word building patterns and meaning.

1) Ability to combine with a verb or an adjective. An adverb of quality – as an adverbial modifier of manner.

Verbals of time, reason

With adj – as an adverbial modifier of measure and degree

2) Qualitive adverbs have degrees of comparison (slowly – slower) A group of 2 syllable adverbs lose their suffix ly.

The problems:

1) the problem of the analytic forms: Some linguists consider them to be word groups, consisting of words. Another position – the grammatical form of word. Structurally it is a certain grammar form.

2) There are pairs of words of adverbial nature with the same root with the suffix ly and without it (fair-fairly). With ly – an adverbial of manner or measure/degree. He is widely known all over th world. Without ly – acquires some adj characteristics, for it refers either to an object of the action or the doer of the action. In the latter case – noun complement, an object or subject complement.

3) Many adverbs Are homonimus with other parts of speech 1) with adj (fast, hard) 2) with conjunctions (since) 3) with prepositions (before).

Some older linguists had different opinions about the adverb. H. Sweet referred the adv to the particles (perhaps have no morphology). O. Jesperson treated them as particles but in this hierarchy he considered them to be tercialies (3 уровня). Strang – a verbal adjunt (зависимое слово). Freeze выделял наречия, которые можно отнести к знаменательным и служебным: some adverbs refer to class of qualitative words, some to class form words.

The adverbial part of a phrasal verb (постфикс) – the so called postfixes. If we consider them as an affix – the whole of it is derivative: as an adverbial stem – a compound noun, as word – a word group.

17) Числительное

The numerals are subdivided into cardinal and ordinal. As a part of speech the numeral has several interpretations. It has no morphological criteria, it lacks of the criteria of notional part of speech. We can’t apply the criteria grammar patterning to the numeral. So some linguists (Jesperson, Curl) don’t consider the numeral to be the part of speech proper and they consider them depending on their patterns together with some notional parts of speech, for example with the noun or the adjective (within function)

If we consider all the other criteria we find that they have certain functions, word building, patterning and meaning of their own. That’s why it is desirable to consider them to be a notional part of speech.

From the point of view of wordbuilding we distinguish between: simple, derivatives (teen, ty, developed from ten), compounds (21-99), complex (two hundred)

18) Местоимение

The problem is where to refer pronouns – to the notional part of speech or form word.

If we refer them to the notional part of speech it should have a notion, but the pronoun has no direct nomination. It’s an anaphoric usage (reference to smth what has already been mentioned), so some linguists don’t thin they are notional words proper.

On the other hand it can’t be considered a form word because they refer to something in reality as reference in a secondary meaning (through anaphoric usage).

It is possible to place them between the notional parts of speech and the form words.

Another peculiarity: different groups of pronouns have different features. The only thing that group them all – anaphoric function. That’s why they are subdivided into several groups: personal, reflexive, possessive, reciprocal, interrogative, conjunctive and relative, indefinite, negative.

1) personal the grammar forms of person, number, gender, case (nominative, objective) Nominative case часто заменяется objective case: it was me who did it.

Вместо косвенного падежа часто используется именительный падеж (Who did you dance with?)

2) possessive the grammar forms of person, number, gender, 2 forms (conjoined (my) and absolute (mine))

3) reflexive the forms of person, number and gender. 3 functions: 1) reflexive proper (He washed himself) 2) emphatic function (I did it myself) 3) the use of the pronoun to denote an object of an action which coincides with the subject (I looked at myself in the mirror. He laughed at himself).

Emphatic function выделяет то, что всегда является смысловым центром.

Он закрыл дверь за собой – He closed the door behind him (так как нет действия подлежащего)

Он сама доброта – He is kindness himself.

4) reciprocal (each other, one another) – they may have the possessive form (each other’s bag)

5) conjunctive and relative – introduce subordinate clauses (who – whose – whom)

6) indefinite and negative – only much, many, little, few have the degrees of comparison, “other” can have plural form – others