A WHO Plan for Burn Prevention and Care

1. Advocacy

Raising awareness

Promoting and supporting action

International, multisectoral cooperation

2.Policy

Effective and sustainable burn prevention and care policies

Action plans, legislation, regulations, enforcement

3.Data and measurement

Magnitude and burden

Risk factors

4.Research

Set agenda of priorities

Promote and foster trials of promising interventions

5.Prevention

Stronger, more effective burn prevention programs

More countries with national burn strategies

6.Services

Strengthen treatment services available

Acute care

Rehabilitation

Recovery

7.Capacity building

Sufficient knowledge and skill to effectively carry out all of the above components of the Burn Plan

Community surveys

Community surveys are needed in the US to establish the degree to which Hispanics utilize the health care system for treatment of burns. The very low incidence of non-fatal burns in Hispanics treated at US hospital emergency departments suggests that many burns are being treated by families with home remedies. The few population-based surveys that have been done in Bangladesh have demonstrated the tremendous utility of this approach, outlining clearly not only the true incidence of burns within the community, but also the extent of disability and death that accompany burns [126–129]. Only with an accurate appreciation of the burden of burn injuries within a region can effective lobbying efforts move forward in funding agencies and government health departments.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to express his gratitude to the following for their help in preparing this chapter: Amy Acton, David Barillo, Peter Brigham, Ernest Grant, Carol Runyan, and Fiona Wood.

References

[1]Abdulwadud O, Ozanne-Smith J (1998) Injuries associated with fireworks in Victoria: an epidemiological review. Inj Prev 4: 272–275

[2]Adamo C et al (1995) Epidemiological data on burn injuries in Angola: a retrospective study of 7230 patients. Burns 21: 536–538

[3]Ahrens M (2008) Home smoke alarms: the data as context for decision. Fire Technology 44: 313–327

[4]Ahrens M (2009) Smoke alarms in US home fires. National Fire Protection Association, Fire Analysis and Research Division, September 2009. http://www.nfpa. org/assets/files//PDF/OS.SmokeAlarms.pdf

[5]Agran PF et al (2003) Rates of pediatric injury by 3-month intervals for children 0 to 3 years of age. Pediatrics 111;e683-e692. http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/ content/full/111/6/e683

[6]Ahuja RB, Bhattacharya S (2002) An analysis of 11,196 burn admissions and evaluation of conservative management techniques. Burns 28: 555–561

[7]Ahuja RB et al (2009) Changing trends of an endemic trauma. Burns 35: 650–656

[8]Alarie Y (2002) Toxicity of fire smoke. Crit Rev Toxicol

32:259–289

[9]Alden NE et al (2005) Burn injury in patients with dementia: an impetus for prevention. J Burn Care Rehabil

26:267–271

[10]Alden NE et al (2007) Tap water scalds among seniors and the elderly: socio-economics and implications for prevention. Burns 33: 666–669

[11]Al-Qattan MM (2000) Burns in epileptics in Saudi Arabia. Burns 26: 561–563

[12]Al-Qattan MM, Al-Zahrani K (2009) A review of burns related to traditions, social habits, religious activities, festivals and traditional medical practices. Burns

35:476–481

[13]American Burn Association (2006) National Burn Repository, 2006, v. 2.0. http://www.ameriburn.org/ NBR2005.pdf

[14]American Burn Association (2007) Burn incidence and treatment in the US: 2007 fact sheet. http://www.amer iburn.org/resources_factsheet.php

[15]American Burn Association (2009) National Burn Repository, 2009, v.5.0. http://www.ameriburn.org/2009 NBRAnnualReport.pdf

[16]American Housing Survey 2007 (2008) U. S. Department of Commerce and U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Table 1C-4, 2–4, and 2–25.

[17]Arai L et al (2005) It might work in Oklahoma but will it work in Oakhampton? Context and implementation in the effectiveness literature on domestic smoke detectors. Inj Prev 11: 148–151

[18]Arshi S et al (2006) Prevention oriented epidemiologic study of accidental burns in rural areas of Ardabil, Iran. Burns 32: 366–371

[19]Ascone DS (2004) U. S. Consumer Product Safety Commission National Burn Center Reporting System. CPSC Division of Hazard Analysis. http://www.cpsc.gov/ CPSCPUB/PREREL/prhtml05/05 028.pdf

[20]ASTM (1982) Standard terminology relating to fire standards. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, E176–182

[21]Atiyeh BS et al (2009) Burn prevention mechanisms and outcomes: pitfalls, failures and successes. Burns 35: 181–193

[22]Backstein R et al (1993) Burns in the disabled. Burns 19: 192–197

[23]Baker S et al (1992) The injury fact book, 2nd edn. Lexington Books, Lexington, MA

[24]Ballesteros M et al (2005) Working toward the elimination of residential fire deaths: the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Smoke Alarm Installation and Fire Safety Education (SAIFE) Program. J Burn Care Res 26: 434–9

[25]Balraj EK (1984) Atherosclerotic coronary artery disease and “low” levels of carboxyhemoglobin: report of fatalities and discussion of pathophysiologic mechanisms of death. J Forensic Sci 29: 1150–1159

[26]Bari SM et al (2002) Acid burns in Bangladesh. Ann Burns Fire Disasters 14: 115–118

[27]Barillo DJ et al (1986) Is ethanol the unknown toxin in smoke inhalation injury? Am Surg 52: 641–645

[28]Barillo DJ et al (1998) Preventable burns associated with a misuse of gasoline. Burns 24: 439–443

[29]Barillo DJ et al (1996) Fire fatality study: demographics of fire victims. Burns 22: 85–88

[30]Barillo DJ et al (2000) The fire-safe cigarette: a burn prevention tool. J Burn Care Rehabil 21: 164–170

[31]Barillo DJ, Wolf S (2006) Planning for burn disasters: lessons learned from one hundred years of history. J Burn Care Res 27: 622–634

[32]Barss P, Wallace K (1983) Grass skirt burns in Papua New Guinea. Lancet 1 (8327): 733–734

[33]Barss P (1991) Health impact of injuries in the highlands of Papua New Guinea: a verbal autopsy study (dissertation). Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, Baltimore, MD

[34]Barss P et al (1998) Injury prevention: an international perspective. Oxford University Press, New York

[35]Bawa Bhalla S et al (2000) Burn properties of fabrics and garments worn in India. Accident Analysis and Prevention 32: 407–420

[36]Beer GM, Kompatscher P (1996) Standardization of the first aid treatment of burn injuries in Vorarlberg, Austria. Burns 22: 130–134

[37]Begg S et al (2007) The burden of disease and injury in Australia 2003. PHE 82. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Canberra

[38]Bjerregaard P (1992) Fatal non-intentional injuries in Greenland. Art Med Res 51[Suppl 7]: 22–26

[39]Blakeney P et al (1993) Social competence and behavioral problems of pediatric survivors of burns. J Burn Care Rehabil 14: 65–72

[40]Block J (1983) Differential premises arising from differential socialization of the sexes: some conjectures. Child Development 54: 1335–1354

[41]Blomgren I et al (1982) Effect of cold water immersion on oedema formation in the scalded mouse ear. Burns

9:17–20

[42]Boykin JV et al (1980) Histamine-mediated delayed permeability response after scald burn inhibited by cimetidine or cold-water treatment. Science 209: 815–817

[43]Brigham PA, McLoughlin E (1996) Burn incidence and medical care use in the United States: estimates, trends, and data sources. J Burn Care Rehab 17: 95–107

[44]Burd A, Yuen C (2005) A global study of hospitalized pediatric burn patients. Burns 31: 432–438

[45]Cadier MA, Shakespeare PG (1995) Burns in octogenarians. Burns 21: 200–204

[46]Caplan YH et al (1986) Accidental poisonings involving carbon monoxide, heating systems, and confined spaces. J Forensic Sci 31:117–121

[47]Centers for Disease Control (2009) Web-based injury and statistics query and reporting system (WISQARS ) http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/mortrate9. html

[48]Centers for Disease Control (2009a) Nonfatal scald-re- lated burns among adults aged ≥ 65 years – United States, 2001–2006. MMWR 58: 993–996

[49]Peck M et al (2010) Hot tap water legislation in the United States. J Burn Care Res 31: 918–925

[50]Chapman CW (1983) Burns and plastic surgery in the South Atlantic campaign 1982. J Royal Navy Med Serv

69:71–79

[51]Coalition for Fire-Safe Cigarettes (2009) State-by- state efforts. National Fire Protection Association. http:// www.firesafecigarettes.org/itemDetail.asp?categoryID= 93&itemID=1295&URL=Legislative%20updates/State- by-state%20efforts#oregon

[52]Connolly GN et al (2005) Effect of the New York State cigarette fire safety standard on ignition propensity, smoke constituents, and the consumer market. Tob Control 14: 321–327

[53]Council on Scientific Affairs (1987) Preventing death and injury from fires with automatic sprinklers and smoke detectors. JAMA 257: 1618–1620

[54]Courtright P et al (1993) The epidemiology of burns in rural Ethiopia. J Epidemiol Community Health 47: 19–22

[55]Crabtree J (2006) Terrorist homicide bombings: a primer for preparation. J Burn Care Res 27: 576–588

[56]Cusick JM et al (1997) Children’s sleepwear: relaxation of the Consumer Product Safety Commission’s flammability standards. J Burn Care Res 18: 469–476

[57]DeKoning EP et al (2009) Epidemiology of burn injuries presenting to North Carolina emergency departments in 2006–2007. Burns 35: 776–782

[58]Demamu S (1991) Community-based study of childhood injuries in Adamitulu District, Ethiopia (thesis). Addis Ababa University, Department of Community Health

[59]Department for Communities and Local Government (2008) Fire Statistics, United Kingdom, 2006, London, U. K., pp 35–42. http://www.communities.gov.uk/do cuments/fire/pdf/firestats2006.pdf

[60]DiGuiseppi C et al (2000) Urban residential fire and flame injuries: a population based study. Inj Prev 6: 250–254

[61]DiGuiseppi C et al (2000a) Systematic review of controlled interventions to promote smoke alarms. Arch Dis Child 82: 341–348

[62]DiGuiseppi C et al (2001) Interventions for promoting smoke alarm ownership and function. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 2. Art. No.: CD002 246

[63]Dobson RB (1995) Clifford’s tower and the jews of Medieval York. English Heritage, London

[64]Dubivsky PM, Bukowski RW (1989) False Alarm Study of Smoke Detectors in Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Centers (VAMCS), NISTIR 89–4077, Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology, p 45

[65]Duncanson M et al (2000) Follow-up Survey of Auahi Whakatupato Smoke Alarm Installation Project in the Eastern Bay of Plenty, New Zealand Fire Service Commission Research Report Number Seven, University of Otago. http://www3.fire.org.nz/CMS_media/pdf/98ae 995 639dd13b93f3af49e08d73bac.pdf

[66]Durrani KM, Raza SK (1975) Studies on flammability of clothing of burn victims, changes therein, and their wearability after a borax rinse. J Pakistan Med Assoc 25: 99–102

[67]Eaton W (1989) Are sex differences in child motor activity level a function of sex differences in maturational status? Child Development 60: 1005–1011

[68]Edwin AFL et al (2008) The impact of recent legislation on paediatric fireworks injuries in the Newcastle upon Tyne region. Burns 34: 953–964

[69]Einhorn IN (1975) Physiological and toxicological aspects of smoke produced during the combustion of polymeric materials. Environ Health Perspect 11:163–189

[70]El-badawy A, Mabrouk AR (1998) Epidemiology of childhood burns in the burn unit of Ain Shams University in Cairo. Egypt Burns 24:728–732

[71]Eldad A, Torem M (1990) Burns in the Lebanon War 1982: “the Blow and the Cure.” Military Medicine

155:130–132

[72]Erdmann TC et al (1991) Tap water burn prevention: the effect of legislation. Pediatrics 88: 572–577

[73]Fagenholz PJ et al (2007) National study of emergency department visits for burn injuries, 1993 to 2004. J Burn Care Res 28: 691–690

[74]Fagot B (1978) The influence of sex of child on parental reactions to toddler children. Child Development

49:459–465

[75]Fauveau U, Blanchet T (1989) Deaths from injuries and induced abortion among rural Bangladeshi women. Soc Sci Med 29: 1121–1127

[76]Federal Emergency Management Agency (2004) Fire in the United States 1992–2001, 13 th edition. National Fire Data Center, Emmitsburg, MD

[77]Fogarty BJ, Gordon DJ (1999) Firework related injury and legislation: the epidemiology of firework injuries and the effect of legislation in Northern Ireland. Burns

25:53–56

[78]Forjuoh SN (1998) The mechanisms, intensity of treatment, and outcomes of hospitalized burns: issues for prevention. J Burn Care Rehabil 19: 456–460

[79]Friesen B (1985) Haddon’s strategy for prevention: application to Native house fires. Circumpolar Health. University of Washington Press, Seattle 84: 105–109

[80]Gali BM et al (2004) Epidemiology of childhood burns in Maiduguri, north-eastern Nigeria. Nigerian j Med

13:144–147

[81]Gerson L, Wingard D (1979) Fire deaths and drinking: data from the Ontario fire reporting system. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 6: 125–133

[82]Ghosh A, Bharat R (2000) Domestic burns prevention and first aid awareness in and around Jamshedpur, India: strategies and impact. Burns 26: 605–608

[83]Godwin Y et al (1996) Shack fires: a consequence of urban migration. Burns 23: 151–153

[84]Government Gazette (2006) Compulsory specification for non-pressurized paraffin stoves and heaters. Government Notice No. R 1091. https://www.sabs.co.za/ content/uploads/files/VC9089.pdf

[85]Grange AO et al (1988) Flame burns disasters from kerosene appliance explosions in Lagos, Nigeria. Burns

14:147–150

[86]Greenbaum AR et al (2004) Intentional burn injury: an evidence-based, clinical and forensic review. Burns

30:628–642

[87]Gulaid JA et al (1989) Deaths from residential fires among older people, United States, 1984. J Am Geriatr Soc 37: 331–334

[88]Gupta RK et al (1988) Study of fatal burn cases in Kanpur (India). Forensic Sci Int 37: 81–89

[89]Gupta M et al (1992) Paediatric burns in Jaipur, India: an epidemiological study. Burns 18: 63–67

[90]Gupta M et al (1996) The kerosene tragedy of 1994, an unusual epidemic of burns: epidemiological aspects and management of patients. Burns 22: 3–9

[91]Hall JR (2008) U. S. smoking-material fire problems. National Fire Protection Association Fire Analysis and Research Division. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA. http://www.nfpa.org/assets/files// PDF/OS. Smoking.pdf

[92]Hall JR (2009) Fireworks. National Fire Protection Association Fire Analysis and Research Division. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA. http://www. nfpa.org/assets/files/pdf/os.fireworks.pdf

[93]Hall JR (2009a) U. S. experience with sprinklers and other fire extinguishing equipment. National Fire Protection Association Fire Analysis and Research Division. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA. http://www.nfpa.org/assets/files//PDF/OSsprin klers.pdf

[94]Hartzell GE (1991) Combustion products and their effects o life safety. In: Cote AE (ed) Fire protection handbook. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, pp 3–3 to 3–14

[95]Heimbach DM (2003) Regionalization of burn care – a concept whose time has come. J Burn Care Rehabil 24: 173–174

[108]Karter MJ, Miller AL (1990) Patterns of fire casualties in home fires by age and sex, 1983–1987. NFPA Fire Analysis and Research Division, Quincy, MA

[109]Karter MJ (2009) Fire loss in the United States 2008. FPA Fire Analysis and Research Division, Quincy, MA

[110]Katcher ML, Shapiro MM (1987) Lower extremity burns related to sensory loss in diabetes mellitus. J Fam Pract 24: 149–151

[111]Katcher ML (1987a) Prevention of tap water scald burns: evaluation of a multi-media injury control program. Am J Public Health 77: 1195–1197

[112]Keswani MH (1986) The prevention of burning injury. Burns 12: 533–539

[113]Klein M et al (2009) Geographic access to burn center hospitals. JAMA 302: 1774–1781. http://jama.ama-as sn.org/cgi/reprint/302/16/1774

[114]Laditan AAO (1987) Accidental scalds and burns in infancy and childhood. J Trop Pediatr 33: 199–202

[115]Laloë V (2002) Epidemiology and mortality of burns in a general hospital of Eastern Sri Lanka. Burns 28: 778–781

[116]Laloë V (2004) patterns of deliberate self-burning in various parts of the world. Burns 30: 207–215

ted to Ain Shams University Burns Unit, Cairo, Egypt. Burns 29: 353–358

[97]Híjar-Medina MC et al (1992) Accidents in the home in children less than 10 years of age. Causes and consequences. Salud Pública de México 34: 615–625

[98]Hill IR (1990) An analysis of factors impeding passenger escape from aircraft fires. Aviat Space Environ Med

61:261–265

[99]Horrocks AR et al (2004) The particular flammability hazards of nightwear. Fire Safety J 39: 259–276

[100]Hudspith J et al (2004) First aid and treatment of minor burns. Br Med J 328: 1487–1489

[101]Huffman A (2009) Sultana: the worst maritime disaster in American history. Harper Collins

[102]Hughes A et al (2008) State Estimates of Substance Use from the 2005–2006 National Surveys on Drug Use and Health. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies, Rockville, MD. http://oas.samhsa.gov/2k6state/2k6State.pdf

[103]Hyder AA et al (2004) Review on childhood burn injuries in Sub Saharan Africa: a forgotten public health challenge. African Safety Promotion: A Journal of Injury and violence Prevention 2: 43–49

[104]Istre GR et al (2001) Deaths and injuries from house fires. NEJM 344: 1911–1916

[105]Istre GR et al (2002) Residential fire related deaths and injuries among children: fireplay, smoke alarms, and prevention. Inj Prev 8: 128–132

[106]Jarvis GK, Boldt M (1982) Death styles among Canada’s Indians. Soc Sci Med 16: 1345–1352

[107]Jutla RK, Heimbach D (2004) Love burns: an essay about bride burning in India. J Burn Care Rehabil

25:165–170

in Fars province, Iran. J Burn Care Res 23: 39–45

[118]Liao CC, Rossignol AM (2000) Landmarks in burn prevention. Burns 26: 422–434

[119]Lundquist P et al (1989) The role of hydrogen cyanide and carbon monoxide in fire casualties: a prospective study. Forensic Sci Int 43: 9–14

[120]Mabrouk A et al (2000) Kerosene stove as a cause of burns admitted to the Ain Shams burn unit. Burns

26:474–477

[121]MacKenzie EJ et al (2006) A national evaluation of the effect of trauma-center care on mortality. NEJM

354:366–378

[122]Mallonee S et al (1996) Surveillance and prevention of residential-fire injuries. NEJM 335: 27–31

[123]Marsh D et al (1996) Epidemiology of adults hospitalized with burns in Karachi, Pakistan. Burns 22: 225–229

[124]Marshall SW et al (1998) Fatal residential fires: who dies and who survives? JAMA 279: 1633–1637

[125]Mannan A et al (2007) Cases of chemical assault worldwide: a literature review. Burns 33: 149–154

[126]Mashreky SR et al (2008) Epidemiology of childhood burn: yield of largest community based injury survey in Bangladesh. Burns 34: 856–862

[127]Mashreky SR et al (2008a) Consequences of childhood burn: findings from the largest community-based injury survey in Bangladesh. Burns 34: 912–918

[128]Mashreky SR et al (2009) Perceptions of rural people about childhood burns and their prevention: a basis for developing a childhood burn prevention programme in Bangladesh. Public Health 123: 568–572

[129]Mashreky SR et al (2009a) Non-fatal burn is a major cause of illness: findings from the largest communitybased national survey in Bangladesh. Inj Prev 15: 397–402

[130]Matzavakis I et al (2005) Burn injuries related to motorcycle exhaust pipes: a study in Greece. Burns 31: 372–374

[131]Mathers CD et al (2006) Sensitivity and uncertainly analyses for burden of disease and risk factor estimates. In: Lopez AD et al (eds) Global burden of disease and risk factors. Oxford University Press and the World Bank, New York, pp 399–426

[132]McGill V et al (2000) Outcome for older burn patients. Arch Surg 135: 320–325

[133]McGwin G et al (2000) The epidemiology of fire-related deaths in Alabama, 1992–1997. J Burn Care Rehabil 21: 75–83

[134]McLoughlin E et al (1977) One pediatric burn unit’s experience with sleepwear-related injuries. Pediatrics

60:405–409

[135]McLoughlin E, McGuire A (1990) The causes, cost, and prevention of childhood burn injuries. Am J Dis Child

144:677–683

[136]Mercier C, Blond MH (1996) Epidemiological survey of childhood burn injuries in France. Burns 22: 29–34

[137]Mierley MC, Baker SP (1983) Fatal house fires in an urban population. JAMA 249: 1466–1468

[138]Miller GD (1995) Falling through the safety net. National Fire Protection Association Journal 6:xi-xv

[139]Minn YK (2007) Who burned and how to prevent? Identification of risk for and prevention of burns among epileptic patients. Burns 33: 127–128

[140]Mock C et al (2003) Injury prevention counseling to improve safety practices by parents in Mexico. Bull WHO.

81:591–8

[141]Mock C et al (2004) Guidelines for essential trauma care. World Health Organization, Geneva, 2004. http:// whqlibdoc.who. int/publications/2004/9241546409. pdf

[142]Mock C et al (2008) Child injuries and violence: the new challenge for child health. Bull World Health Organ 86: 420

[143]Mock C et al (2008a) A WHO plan for burn prevention and care. World Health Organization, Geneva, CH. http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/me dia/news/13_03_2008/en/index.html

[144]Moritz AR, Henriques FC (1947) Studies of thermal injury: the relative importance of time and surface temperature in the causation of cutaneous burns. Am J Pathol 23: 695–720

[145]Muir BL (1991) Health status of Canadian Indians and Inuit–1990. Ottawa, Canada: Indian and Northern Health Services, Medical Services Branch, Health and Welfare Canada, pp 1–58

[146]Murray JP (1988) A study of the prevention of hot tapwater burns. Burns 14: 185–193

[147]National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (2001) Injury fact book 2001–2002. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA

[148]Nega KE et al (2002) Epidemiology of burn injuries in Mekele Town, Northern Ethiopia: a community based study. Ethiop J Health Dev 16: 1–7

[149]NSKC (National SAFE KIDS Campaign) (2004) Burn Injury Fact Sheet. Washington (DC): NSKC. http://www. preventinjury.org/PDFs/BURN_INJURY.pdf

[150]Ndiritu S et al (2006) Burns: the epidemiological pattern, risk and safety awareness at Kenyatta National

Hospital, Nairobi. East African Medical Journal

83:455–460

[151]New York Times (1863) Terrific tragedy in Chili: two thousand five hundred persons roasted to death in a church. Dec 14, 1863

[152]Nguyen NL et al (2002) The importance of immediate cooling – a case series of childhood burns in Vietnam. Burns 28: 173–176

[153]Nguyen NL et al (2008) First aid and initial management for childhood burns in Vietnam – an appeal for public and continuing medical education. Burns

34:67–70

[154]Notzon FC et al (1998) Causes of declining life expectancy in Russia. JAMA 279: 793–800

[155]Ofeigsson OJ et al (1972) Observations on the cold

water treatment of cutaneous burns. J Pathol

108: 145–150

[156]Owen-Smith MS (1977) Armoured fighting vehicle casualties. J Royal Army Med Corps 123: 65–76

[157]Papp A et al (2008) Paediatric ICU burns in Finland 1994–2004. Burns 34: 339–344

[158]Papp T et al (1978) The health education of inpatients on the prevention and first aid of burns. Burns 1: 92–93

[159]Paraffin Safety Association of Southern Africa (2003) 2003 SABS stove test report. www.psasa.org

[160]Paraffin Safety Association of Southern Africa (2008) The status of paraffin appliances in South Africa – October, 2008. Paraffin Safety Association of Southern Africa, Cape Town, SA. http://www.pasasa.org/files/ documents/programmes/safer-systems/20081112- The_status_of_paraffin_appliances_in_South_Africa. pdf

[161]Park JO et al (2009) Association between socioeconomic status and burn injury severity. Burns 35: 482–490

[162]Peck MD et al (1996) Comparison of length of hospital stay with mortality rate in a regional burn center. J Burn Care Rehabil 17: 39–44

[163]Peck MD et al (2007) Invited critique: National study of emergency department visits for burn injuries, 1993–2004. J Burn Care Res 28: 691–693

[164]Peck MD et al (2007a) Trends in injury-related deaths before and after dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. International J of Injury Control and Safety Promotion 14: 139–151

[165]Peck MD et al (2008) Burns and fires from non-electric domestic appliances in low and middle income countries. Part I: the scope of the problem. Burns 34: 303–311

[166]Peck MD et al (2008a) Burns and fires from non-elec- tric domestic appliances in low and middle income countries. Part II: a strategy for intervention using the Haddon matrix. Burns 34: 312–319

[167]Peden M et al (2008) World Report on Child Injury

Prevention. World Health Organization, Geneva, pp 78–98. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/200 8/9789241563574_eng.pdf

[168]Peleg K et al (2005) Burn prevention programs for children: do they reduce burn-related hospitalizations? Burns 31: 347–350

[169]Pereira C et al (2004) Outcome measures in burn care: is mortality dead? Burns 30: 761–771

[170]Potts JW et al (1978) A study of the inhalation toxicity of smoke produced upon pyrolysis and combustion of polyethylene foams. J Combustion Toxicology 5: 408–433

[171]Quinney B et al (2002) Thermal burn fatalities in the workplace, United States, 1992 to 1999. J Burn Care Rehabil 23: 305–310

[172]Proulx G (2007) Response to Fire Alarms. Fire Protection Engineering, Winter pp 8–11

[173]Pruitt BA et al (2007) Epidemiological, demographic, and outcome characteristics of burn injury. In: Herndon DN(ed) Total Burn Care, third edition. Saunders Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA, pp 14–32

[174]Public/Private Safety Council (2006) White Paper: home smoke alarms and other fire detection and alarm equipment. http://www.nfpa.org/assets/files//PDF/ Research/SmokeAlarmsWhitePaper0406.pdf

[175]Puri V et al (2009) Fireworks injuries: a ten-year study. J Plast Reconstruc Aesthet Surg 62: 1103–1111

[176]Raghupati N (1968) First-aid treatment of burns: efficacy of water cooling. Br J Plast Surg 21: 68–72

[177]Raine TJ et al (1981) Cooling the burn wound to maintain microcirculation. J Trauma 21: 394–397

[178]Rea S et al (2005) Burn first aid in Western Australia – do healthcare workers have the knowledge? Burns

8:1029–1034

[179]Rivara F et al (1982) Epidemiology of childhood injuries: II. Sex difference in injury rates. Am J Dis Child

136:502–506

[180]Rivara F (1995) Developmental and behavioral issues in childhood injury prevention. J Developmental Behavior Pediatrics 16: 362–370

[181]Roberts I. (1997) Cause specific social class mortality differentials for child injury and poisoning in England and Wales. J Epidemiol Common Health 51: 334–5.

[182]Roberts H et al (2004) Putting public health evidence into practice: increasing the prevalence of working smoke alarms in disadvantaged inner city housing, J Epidemiol Community Health 48: 280–285. http:// jech.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/58/4/280

[183]Roesler JS, Day H (2007) Sparklers, smoke bombs, and snakes, oh my! Effect of legislation on fireworks-related

injuries in Minnesota, 1999–2005. Minnesota Med J 90: 46–47

[184]Rosen BN, Peterson L (1990) Gender differences in children’s outdoor play injuries: a review and integration. Clin Psychol Rev 10: 187–205

[185]Rossi LA et al (1998) Childhood burn injuries: circumstances of occurrences and their prevention in Ribeirão Preto, Brazil. Burns 24: 416–419

[186]Runyan CW et al (1992) Risk factors for fatal residential fires. NEJM 327: 859–863

[187]Runyan CW (2003) Introduction: back to the futurerevisiting Haddon’s conceptualization of injury epidemiology and prevention. Epidemiol Rev 25: 60–64

[188]Saadat S et al (2009) Safety preparedness of urban community for New Year fireworks in Tehran. Burns 35:719–722

[189]Saegert S, Hart R (1990) The development of sex differences in the environmental confidence of children. In: Burnett P (ed) Women in society. Maaroufa Press, Chicago, pp 157–175

[190]Safe Bottle Lamp Foundation (2009) http://www.safe bottlelamp.org/

[191]Saffle JA (2001) Organization and delivery of burn care. In: Practice guidelines for burn care. American Burn Association, Chicago: pp 18–57. http://www.amer iburn.org/PracticeGuidelines2001.pdf

[192]Sagraves SG (2007) A collaborative systems approach to rural burn care. J Burn Care Res 28: 111–114

[193]Saleh S et al (1986) Accidental burn deaths to Egyptian women of reproductive age. Burns 12: 241–245

[194]Salomon JA et al (2003) Health State Valuations in Summary Measures of Population Health. In: Murray JL, Evans D (eds) Health Systems Performance Assessment: Debate, Methods, and Empiricism, World Health Organization, Geneva, pp 409–36

[195]Sanghavi P et al (2009) Fire-related deaths in India in 2001: a retrospective analysis of data. Lancet 373: 1282–1288

[196]Sawhney CP (1989) Flame burns involving kerosene pressure stoves in India. Burns 15: 362–364

[197]Scholer SJ et al (1998) Predictors of mortality from fires in young children. Pediatrics 101:E12–16

[198]Schwebel DC et al (2009) An intervention to reduce kerosene-related burns and poisonings in low-income

South African communities. Health Psychology

28: 493–500

[199]Shahidul B, Choudhury I (2001) Acid burns in Bangladesh. Ann Burns Fire Disasters 14: 1–9

[200]Sheller JP et al (1995) Burn injuries caused by fireworks: effect of prophylaxis. Burns 21: 50–53

[201]Shields BJ et al (2007) Healthcare resource utilization and epidemiology of pediatric burn-associated hospi-

talizations, United States, 2000. J Burn Care Res

28: 811–826

[202]Shkrum MJ, Ramsay DA (2007) Forensic pathology of trauma. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ

[203]Sikora F (1991) Until justice rolls down: the Birmingham Church bombing case. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, AL

[204]Skinner A, Peat B (2002) Burns treatment for children and adults: a study of initial burns first aid and hospital care. NZ Med J 115:U199

[205]Skinner A et al (2005) Reduced hospitalization of burns patients following a multi-media campaign that increased adequacy of first aid treatment. Burns 30: 82–85

[206]Smith GA et al (1996) The rockets’ red glare, the bombs bursting in air: fireworks-related injuries to children. Pediatrics 98: 1–9

[207]Squires T, Busuttil A (1997) Alcohol and house fire fa-

talities in Scotland, 1980–1990. Med Sci Law

37: 321–325

[208]Stephen FR, Murray JP (1993) Prevention of hot tap water burns – a comparative study of three types of automatic mixing valves. Burns 19: 56–62

[209]Stewart RD et al (1976) Rapid estimation of carboxyhemoglobin level in fire fighters. JAMA 235: 390–392

[210]Tamrat A (1981) Accidents and poisoning in children. Ethiop Med J 24: 39–40

[211]Tekle-Haimanot R (1993) Neurological disorders. In: Kloos H et al (eds) The ecology of health and disease in Ethiopia. Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp 483–491

[212]Tekle Wold F (1973) Accidents in childhood. Ethiop Med J 11: 41–46

[213]Thapa NB (1989) Report of injury survey in Bhumisthan Village Panchayat Dhadhing and in Bir Hospital Kathmandu. National Programmes on Accident and Injury Prevention. National Board of Health and Welfare, Stockholm

[214]Theilade P (1990) Carbon monoxide poisoning. Five years’ experience in a defined population. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 11: 219–225

[215]Thomas M (2000) Ionization and photoelectric smoke alarms in rural Alaskan homes. West J Med 173: 89–92. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi? artid=1071008&blobtype=pdf

[216]Thorpe T (2004) Critical cost based analysis of inclusive expense to the South African Government of patients with burn injuries sustained from non-pressurised paraffin stoves. Fincore Financial, South Africa

[217]Tung KY et al (2005) A seven-year epidemiology study of 12,381 admitted burn patients in Taiwan – using the Internet registration system of the Childhood Burn Foundation. Burns 31S: S12-S17

[218]UNICEF (2001) A league table of child deaths by injury in rich nations. Innocenti Report Care No. 2, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Florence. http://www. unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/repcard2e.pdf

[219]US Consumer Product Safety Commission Office of Compliance (2001) Summary of Children’s Sleepwear Regulations, 16 C. F. R. Parts 1615 & 1616. http://www. cpsc.gov/businfo/regsumsleepwear.pdf

[220]US Consumer Product Safety Commission Office of Compliance (2001a) Summary of Fireworks Regula-

tions, 16 C. F. R. Parts 1500 & 1507. http://www.cpsc. gov/BUSINFO/regsumfirework.pdf

[221]US Consumer Product Safety Commission (2008) Flammable Liquids Safety Alert, CPSC Publication 5140. http://www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PUBS/5140.pdf.

[222]US Consumer Product Safety Commission (2009) Fireworks. Publication #12. http://www.cpsc.gov/ cpscpub/pubs/012.pdf

[223]US Fire Administration (1983) Residential Smoke and Fire Detector Coverage in the United States: Findings from a 1982 Survey. Washington, DC: Federal Emergency Management Agency

[224]Vassilia K et al (2004) Firework-related childhood injuries in Greece: a national problem. Burns 30: 151–153

[225]Vilasco B et al (1995) Burns in Adidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. Burns 21: 291–296

[226]Waller AE et al (1993) An evaluation of a program to reduce home hot tap water temperatures. Australian J Public Health 17:116–123

[227]Warda L et al (1999) House fire injury prevention update. Part I. A review of risk factors for fatal and nonfatal house fire injury. Inj Prevention 5: 145–150

[228]Warda L et al (1999a) House fire injury prevention update. Part II. A review of the effectiveness of preventive interventions. Inj Prev 5: 217–225

[229]Weaver LK (1999) Carbon monoxide poisoning. Crit Care Clin 15: 297–317

[230]Witsaman RJ et al (2006) Pediatric fireworks-related injuries in the United States: 1990–2003. Pediatrics 118: 296–303

[231]World Bank (2009) Africa results and monitoring system: improve access to and the reliability of clean energy. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/ COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/EXTAFRRES/0,,menuPK:3 506 948~pagePK:64 168 427~piPK:64168435~theSite PK:3506 896,00.html.

[232]World Health Organization (2008) The Global Burden of Disease: 2004 Update. World Health Organization, Geneva. http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_ disease/GBD_report_2004update_full.pdf.

[233]World Health Organization (2009) WHO mortality database. http://www.who.int/healthinfo/morttables/en/ index.html. Accessed December 22, 2009.

[234]Yongqiang F et al (2007) Epidemiology of hospitalized burn patients in Shandong Province, 2001–2005. J Burn Care Res 28: 468–473

[235]Ytterstad B, Sogaard AJ (1995) The Harstad injury prevention study: prevention of burns in small children by a community-based intervention. Burns 21: 259–266

Correspondence: Michael D. Peck, M.D., Sc.D., FACS, Arizona Burn Center, Maricopa Medical Center, 2601 East Roosevelt Street, Phoenix, AZ 85 008, USA, Tel: +1 602 344 5624, Fax: +1 602 344 5705, E-mail: michael_peck@medprodoctors.com