3. Write a summary of the author’s ideas, including a suitable reference.

1. ‘The revolution taking place in information and communication technologies have been the central and driving force for the globalization process’ [Ajayi, G. O. (2000). Challenge to Nigeria of Globalization and the Information Age. Keynote address at the Workshop on National Information Communication Infrastructure (NICI) Policy Plans and Strategies for Implementation, Maitama, Abuja].

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! Referring verbs use both the present and the past tenses. If you feel that the ideas or data are still valid it is better to use the present tense for recent sources:

In addition, as Trostinikov (1970) has pointed out, rapid expansion of a mass of diversified information is occurring, which has received the name "information explosion".

suggests that If the source is older and the ideas perhaps out-of-date use the past tense:

According to Daniel (2000) Nancy Schiller was one of the first writers to use the expression "virtual library" which she defined in 1992, simply as "libraries in which computer and telecommunications technologies make access to a wide range of information resources possible."

! There are three main systems of reference in use in academic writing:

1. Capron (2000) revealed … (date of publication in brackets when referring verb is used)

This surface model was used to describe incoherent directional component of surface reflection from rough surfaces. [K. Torrance and E. Sparrow, 1967] (authors and date in brackets after summary).

NB! For quotations page numbers should also be given after the date.

‘Addressing a different cause for non-Lambertian reflectance from the one discussed here, we used linear transport theory to analyze subsurface scattering from a multi-layered surface’[P. Hanrahan andW. Krueger, 1993, pp.165-174].

2. Insert numbers in brackets in the text for each source, and at the end of the chapter or article list the references in number order:

This function was designed to obey Helmholtz’s reciprocity principle [2] but is not based on any

theoretical foundation. The studies cited above were attempts to design reflectance models based on measured reflectance data. In contrast, Smith [1] and Buhl et al.

1. B. G. Smith. Lunar surface roughness: Shadowing and thermal emission. Journal of Geophysical Research, vol.72(16):, August 1967 ,pp.4059–4067.

2. P. Beckmann and A. Spizzichino. The Scattering of ElectromagneticWaves from Rough Surfaces. Pergamon, New York, 1963, pp.436-450.

3. Use footnotes. The references are listed at the bottom of the page.

This phenomenon is referred to as backscattering⁴.

NB! A full reference section is required at the end of the article or book.

1. Style

! Modern academic writing has a semi/formal, impersonal and objective style.

The focus is on presenting information as clearly and accurately as possible. Be as precise as possible when dealing with facts or figures. If it is necessary to estimate numbers use approximately rather than about.

Following are some of the small but specific mistakes in style that are made (mainly unconsciously) in formal written work.

Avoid using:

• personal language

• language that is emotional

• words that express your opinion too strongly

• unnecessary words

• brackets and dashes to add information

• like (use such as or for instance), thing (use factor, issue or topic), lots of (use a significant/considerable number), little/big (use small/large), get phrases (use improve and deteriorate)

• etc. or and so on when writing lists,. Insert and before the last item.

• phrases such as about a hundred or hundreds of years ago.

Do not use:

• colloquial language or slang

• shortened forms of words and phrases incorrectly

• dot/bullet point lists unless you are instructed to

• shift verb tense unnecessarily

• exclamation marks (!!!) in your essay

• question forms. Use statements instead.

• questions and commands

• misuse font and font styles (mainly italics & underlining)