Special forms: '-ed' adjectives

2.81 A large number of English adjectives end in '-ed'. Many of them have the same form as the past participle of a verb. Others are formed by adding '-ed' to a noun. Others are not closely related to any other words.

...a disappointed man.

...a bearded man.

...sophisticated electronic devices.

2.82 Adjectives with the same form as irregular past participles (see the Reference Section) which do not end in '-ed' are also included here as '-ed' adjectives.

Was it a broken bone, a torn ligament, or what?

The past participles of some phrasal verbs (see paragraphs 3.04 to 3.117) can also be used as adjectives. When they are used attributively, the two parts of the phrasal verb are usually written with a hyphen between them.

...the built-up urban mass of the city.

2.83 Most '-ed' adjectives are related to a transitive verb and have a passive meaning. They indicate that something has happened or is happening to the thing being described. For example, 'a frightened person' is a person who has been frightened by something. 'A known criminal' is a criminal who is known by the police.

There are least one or two satisfied customers.

We cannot refuse to teach children the required subjects.

qualitative '-ed' adjectives 2.84 '-ed' adjectives that refer to a person's mental or emotional reaction '-ed' to something are generally qualitative.

He was a worried old man.

...a bored old woman.

...an interested student.

These adjectives can be submodified by words such as 'very' and 'extremely', just like other qualitative adjectives (see paragraphs 2.145 to 2.161).

form and meaning 2.85 Like other adjectives referring to feelings, these adjectives are often used to describe the expression, voice, or manner of person affected, instead of referring directly to that person.

...her big blue frightened eyes.

She could hear his agitated voice.

...his lazy walk and bored air.

2.86 Here is a list of qualitative '-ed' adjectives which have a similar meaning to the most common meaning of the related verb:

agitated alarmed amused appalled astonished bored

confused contented delighted depressed deprived disappointed

disgusted disillusioned distressed embarrassed excited frightened

inhibited interested pleased preoccupied puzzled satisfied

shocked surprised tired troubled worried

Here is a list of qualitative '-ed' adjectives which do not have a similar meaning to the usual meaning of the related verb:

animated attached concerned

determined disposed disturbed

guarded hurt inclined

mixed strained

2.87 Many other '-ed' adjectives are used for classifying, and so are not gradable. For example, 'a furnished apartment' is one type of apartment, contrasting with 'an apartment without furniture'.

...a furnished apartment.

...a painted wooden bowl.

...the closed bedroom door.

Most adjectives which refer to physical distinctions are classifying adjectives.

2.88 Here is a list of classifying '-ed' adjectives which have a similar meaning to the most common meaning of the related verb:

abandoned armed blocked boiled broken canned classified

closed concentrated condemned cooked divided drawn dried

established fixed furnished haunted hidden improved infected

integrated known licensed loaded paid painted processed

reduced required torn trained united wasted

Here is list of '-ed' classifying adjectives which have a different meaning from the most common meaning of the related verb:

advanced marked

noted pointed

spotted veiled

2.89 Classifying '-ed' adjectives cannot normally be submodified with ordinary submodifiers such as 'quite' and 'very'. However, an adverb of manner, (see paragraphs 6.36 to 6.44) or an adverb of degree, (see paragraphs 6.45 to 6.52) is often used before an '-ed' adjective.

For example, 'a pleasantly furnished room' is a room which has been furnished with pleasant furniture.

...pleasantly furnished rooms.

...a well-known novelist.

2.90 Some '-ed' adjectives do not make sense on their own, and an adverb is necessary to complete the sense. We do not usually talk about 'dressed people' because people usually wear clothes, but we can say that they are 'well dressed' or 'smartly dressed' for example. The '-ed' adjectives in the following examples nearly always have an adverb in front of them.

...a cautiously worded statement.

...impeccably dressed men.

...strongly motivated students.

It was a richly deserved honour.

...superbly cut clothes.

...the existence of a highly developed national press.

...a large and well equipped army.

...a tall, powerfully built man.

...perfectly formed people.

Note that combinations like this are sometimes hyphenated, making them compound adjectives.

...a well-equipped army.

'-ed' adjectives with an active meaning 2.91 A few '-ed' adjectives are related to the past participle of intransitive verbs and have an active meaning, not a passive meaning. For example, 'a fallen tree' is a tree which has fallen.

Here and there a fallen tree-trunk spans the narrow gorge.

She is the daughter of a retired army officer.

...an escaped prisoner.

Here is a list of '-ed' adjectives with an active meaning:

accumulated dated

escaped faded

fallen retired

swollen wilted

'-ed' adjectives after link verb 2.92 Most '-ed' adjectives can be used both in from of a noun and as the complement of a link verb.

The worried authorities decided to play safe.

My husband was worried.

A small number of '-ed' adjectives are normally only used as the complement of a link verb. Often, they are followed by a prepositional phrase, a 'to'-infinitive clause, or a 'that'-clause.

I was thrilled by the exhibition.

The Brazilians are pleased with the results.

...food destined for areas of south Sudan.

He was always prepared to account for his actions.

Here is a list of '-ed' adjectives often used as the complement of a link verb, with or without a phrase or clause after them:

convinced delighted interested

intimidated intrigued involved

pleased prepared scared

thrilled tired touched

Here is a list of '-ed' adjectives normally used as the complement of a link verb with a phrase or clause after them:

agreed destined

dressed finished

lost prepared

shut stuck

2.93 The past participle of almost any transitive verb can be used as an adjective, though some are more commonly used than others. This is a productive feature of English. Productive features are explained in the Introduction.

...she said, with a forced smile.

There was one paid tutor and three volunteer tutors.

The recovered animals will be released.

...the final corrected version.

2.94 Some '-ed' adjectives are formed from nouns. For example, if a living thing has wings, you can describe it as 'winged'. If someone has skills, you can describe them as 'skilled'. This is a productive feature of English. Productive features are explained in the Introduction.

...figures of winged creatures.

...a skilled engineer.

She was dressed in black and carried a black beaded purse.

...armoured cars.

...the education of gifted children.

2.95 Here is a list of '-ed' adjectives formed from nouns:

armoured barbed beaded bearded

detailed flowered freckled gifted

gloved hooded mannered pointed

principled salaried skilled spotted

striped turbaned walled winged

'-ed' adjectives formed from nouns are commonly used as the second part of compound adjectives (see paragraph 2.98 to 2.107) such as 'grey-haired' and 'open-minded', because we often want to describe the feature that someone or something has.

2.96 There are also a number of '-ed' adjectives in regular use which are not related to verbs or nouns in the ways described above. For example, there are no words 'parch' or 'belove'. There is a noun 'concert', but the adjective 'concerted' does not mean 'having a concert'.

He climbed up the dry parched grass to the terrace steps.

...a rocking horse for a beloved child.

...attempt to mount a concerted campaign.

...the purchase of expensive sophisticated equipment.

2.97 Here is a list of '-ed' adjectives not related to verbs or nouns:

antiquated ashamed assorted

beloved bloated concerted

crazed deceased doomed

indebted parched rugged

sophisticated tinned