Linking clauses

8.139 You can use a coordinating conjunction to link clauses which have the same subject, or clauses which have different subjects.

8.140 When you link clauses which have the same subject, you do not always need to repeat the subject in the second clause.

If the conjunction is 'and', 'or', or 'then', you do not usually repeat the subject.

He took her hands from her eyes and led her towards the house.

It's a long time since you've bought them a drink or talked to them.

When she recognized Morris she went pale, then blushed.

If the conjunction is 'but', 'so', or 'yet', it is usual to repeat the subject.

I try and see it their way, but I can't.

I had no car, so I hired one for the journey.

He lost the fight, yet somehow he emerged with his dignity enhanced.

When you link clauses which have different subjects but which have some common elements, you do not need to repeat all the elements in the second clause.

For example, instead of saying 'Some of them went to one pub and some of them went to the other pub', you can say 'Some of them went to one pub and some to the other'.

One soldier was killed and another wounded.

One of its sides was painted black and the other white.

8.141 A coordinating conjunction can be used simply to link clauses, or it can be used in addition to indicate a relationship between them. These uses are explained in the following paragraphs.

8.142 If you simply want to mention two related facts, you use 'and'.

He has been successful in Hollywood and has worked with such directors as Norman Jewison and Richard Attenborough.

The company will not be split up and will continue to operate from Belfast.

He gained a B in English and now plans to study Spanish.

You also use 'and' to indicate that two things happened or are happening at the same time.

I sat and watched him.

Other uses of 'and' are explained in the following paragraphs.

sequence 8.143 If you use 'and' between two clauses which describe events, you are indicating that the event described in the first clause happens or happened before the event described in the second one.

She was born in Budapest and raised in Manhattan.

He opened the car door and got out.

'Then' can be used in the same way, but it is less common.

He held his hand to direct the water in a spray across his face, then dipped his head and drank.

two negative facts 8.144 When you want to link two negative clauses, you usually use 'and'.

When his appointment ceased he did not return to his home country and he has not been there since 1979.

However, you can use 'or' when the clauses have the same subject and the same auxiliaries. In the second clauses, you omit the subject, the auxiliaries, and 'not'.

For example, instead of saying 'She doesn't drink and she doesn't smoke', you can say 'She doesn't drink or smoke'.

We will not pay ransom or do deals for hostages.

He didn't yell or scream.

You can also link negative clauses by using 'and neither', 'and nor', or 'nor'. You put 'be' or the auxiliary at the beginning of the second clause, in front of the subject.

For example, instead of saying 'My sister doesn't like him and I don' like him', you can say 'My sister doesn't like him, and neither do I'.

I was not happy and neither were they.

I could not afford to eat in restaurants and nor could anyone else I knew.

Clearly these people are not insane, nor are they fools.

'But neither' and 'but nor' can also be used.

This isn't a dazzling record, but neither is it rubbish.

Institutions of learning are not taxed but nor are they much respected.

When you use 'and' to link two negative statements, you can put 'either' after the second statement.

I hadn't been to a pop festival and Mike hadn't either.

Electricity didn't come into Blackhail Farm until recently and they hadn't any water either.

For emphasis, you can join two negative clauses by using 'neither' and 'nor'. This use is explained in paragraph 8.186.

contrast 8.145 When you are adding a contrasting fact, you usually use 'but'.

I'm only 63, but I feel a hundred.

It costs quite a lot but it's worth it.

I've had a very pleasant two years, but I can't wait to get back to the City.

Yes, we will be using motor racing to promote our products, but we will also be using it to promote good, safe and sober driving.

If you want to add a fact which contrasts strongly with what you have just said, you use 'yet' or 'and yet'.

Everything around him was blown to pieces, yet the minister escaped without a scratch.

I want to leave, and yet I feel obliged to stay.

You usually put a comma in front or 'but', 'yet', or 'and yet'.

8.146 When you want to mention two alternatives, you use 'or'.

I could kill a rabbit with my bare hands or shoot a bullock without the least bother.

We can try to increase the intelligence of our domestic animals or evolve wholly new ones with much higher intelligence.

Was the mine laid in the harbour or did it drift in from the Gulf of Mexico?

8.147 When you are giving advice, you sometimes want to tell someone what will happen if they do a particular thing. You do this by using an imperative clause, followed by 'and' and a clause containing a verb in a future tense.

For example, instead of saying 'If you go by train, you'll get there quicker', you can say 'Go by train and you'll get there quicker'.

Do as you are told and you'll be alright.

You put the out here and you'll lose your job tomorrow.

When you are giving advice, a warning, or an order, you sometimes want to tell someone what will happen if they do not do what you say. You do this by using an imperative clause, followed by 'or' and a clause containing a verb in a future tense.

For example, instead of saying 'Go away! If you don't go away, I scream', you can say 'Go away, or I'll scream'.

Hurry up, or you'll be late for school.

So don't go prying into my affairs or you'll get hurt.

8.148 In writing, you can sometimes begin a sentence with coordinating conjunction. You do this to make the sentence seem more dramatic or forceful. Some people think this use is incorrect.

The villagers had become accustomed to minor earth tremors. But everyone knew that something unusual had woken them on Monday.

Do you think there is something wrong with her? Or do you just not like her?

Send him ahead to warn Eric. And close that door.

8.149 Sometimes, in writing, two clauses can be made into one sentence without a coordinating conjunction being used. Instead, a semicolon or a dash is put between the clauses. This is a way of expressing two statements in one sentence when no particular coordinating conjunction seems appropriate.

The neighbours drove by; they couldn't bear to look.

When we embraced I couldn't say thank you-those words were far too small for someone who had risked her life to save mine.

8.150 Coordinating conjunctions can be used to link non-finite clauses.

'To'-infinitive clauses can be linked by 'and' or 'or'.

We need to persuade more drivers to leave their cars at home and to use the train instead.

She may decide to remarry or to live with one of her sisters.

Sometimes the second 'to' is omitted.

Soldiers tried to clear road obstructions and remove flags and graffiti.

When the second clause is negative, you can use 'not' instead of 'and not'.

I am paid to treat people, not to interrogate them.

Clauses beginning with a participle can be linked by 'and' or 'or'.

The mother lay on the bed gazing at the child and smiling at him.

You may be more comfortable wearing a cotton dress or shirt or sleeping under a cotton blanket.

However, if the first clause begins with 'standing', 'sitting', or 'lying', you do not usually put 'and' between the clauses.

Inside were two lines of old people sitting facing each other.

8.151 For information on how to coordinate more than two clauses, see paragraph 8.188.