8 Combining messages 279

Adverbial clauses 280

Time clauses 281

Conditional clauses 284

Purpose clauses 287

Reason clauses 288

Result clauses 288

Concessive clauses 290

Place clauses 291

Clauses of manner 291

Relative clauses 292

Using relative pronouns in defining clauses 293

Using relative pronouns in non-defining clauses 294

Using relative pronouns with prepositions 294

Using 'whose' 295

Using other relative pronouns 295

Additional points about non-defining relative clauses 296

Nominal relative clauses 296

Non-finite clauses 297

Using non-defining clauses 297

Using defining clauses 298

Other structures used like non-finite clauses 299

Coordination 299

Linking clauses 299

Linking verbs 301

Linking noun groups 302

Linking adjectives and adverbs 303

Linking other word groups 304

Emphasizing coordinating conjunctions 304

Linking more than two clauses or word groups 305

Contents of Chapter 9 306

9 Making texts 310

Referring back 311

Referring back in a specific way 311

Referring back in a general way 313

Substituting for something already mentioned: using 'so' and 'not' 315

Comparing with something already mentioned 315

Referring forward 317

Leaving out words: ellipsis 318

Ellipsis in conversation 320

Contents of Chapter 10 321

10 The structure of information 326

Introduction 326

Focusing on the thing affected: the passive voice 326

Selecting focus: cleft sentences 330

Taking the focus off the subject: using impersonal 'it' 331

Describing a place or situation 332

Talking about the weather and the time 332

Commenting on an action, activity, or experience 333

Commenting on a fact that you are about to mention 334

Introducing something new: 'there' as subject 334

Focusing on clauses or clause elements using adjuncts 336

Commenting on your statement: sentence adjuncts 336

Indicating your attitude to what you are saying 336

Stating your field of reference 338

Showing connections: linking adjuncts 339

Indicating a change in a conversation 340

Emphasizing 341

Indicating the most relevant thing: focusing adverbs 342

Other information structures 343

Putting something first: fronting 343

Introducing your statement: prefacing structures 344

Doing by saying: performative verbs 344

Exclamations 345

Making a statement into a question: question tags 346

Addressing people: vocatives 347

Contents of the Reference Section 348

Reference Section 353

Pronunciation guide 353

Forming plurals of count nouns 353

Forming comparative and superlative adjectives 355

The spelling and pronunciation of possessives 357

Numbers 357

Cardinal numbers 358

Ordinal numbers 358

Fractions and percentages 359

Verb forms and the formation of verb groups 359

Finite verb groups and the formation of tenses 365

Non-finite verb groups: infinitives and participles 369

Forming adverbs 370

Forming comparative and superlative adverbs 372

Index 372

Reference Section

Pronunciation guide

R1 Here is a list of the phonetic symbols for English:

vowel sounds		consonant sounds
ɑː	heart, start, calm.	b	bed	t	talk
æ	act, mass, lap.	d	done	v	van
aɪ	dive, cry, mind.	f	fit	w	win
aɪə	fire, tyre, buyer.	g	good	x	loch
au	out, down, loud.	h	hat	z	zoo
auə	flour, tower, sour.	j	yellow	ʃ	ship
ɛ	met, lend, pen.	k	king	ʒ	measure
ɛɪ	say, main, weight.	l	lip	ŋ	sing
ɛə	fair, care, wear.	m	mat	ʧ	cheap
ɪ	fit, win, list.	n	nine	Ɵ	thin
iː	feed, me, beat.	p	pay	ð	then
ɪə	near, beard, clear.	r	run	ʤ	joy
ɒ	lot, lost, spot.	s	soon
əu	note, phone, coat.
ɔː	more, cord, claw.
ɔɪ	boy, coin, joint.
u	could, stood, hood.
uː	you, use, choose.
uə	sure, poor, cure.
əː	turn, third, word.
ʌ	but, fund, must.
ə	the weak vowel in butter, about, forgotten.

Here is a list of the vowel letters:

a e i o u

Here is a list of the consonant letters:

b c d f g h j k l in n p q r s t v w x y z