Appendix III Список географических названий

LIST OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES

Country	Capital
Afghanistan	Kabul
Albania	Tirana
Algeria	Algiers
Andorra	Andorra la Vella
Angola	Luanda
Antigua and Barbuda	St. John's
Argentina	Buenos Aires
Armenia	Yerevan
Australia	Canberra
Austria	Vienna
Azerbaijan	Baku
Bahamas	`Nassau
Bahrain	Al-Manámah, Manama
Bangladesh	Dhaka
Barbados	Bridgetown
Belarus	Mensk (Minsk)
Belgium	Brussels
Belize	Belmopan
Benin	Porto-Novo; Largest city and seat of government: Cotonou
Bhutan	Thimphu
Bolivia	Sucre; Administrative capital: La Paz
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Sarajevo (unofficial)
Botswana	Gaborone
Brazil	Brasília
Brunei	Bandar Seri Begawan
Bulgaria	Sofia
Burkina Faso	Ouagadougou
Burundi	Bujumbura
Cambodia	Phnom Penh
30. Cameroon	Yaoundé
Canada	Ottawa, Ontario
Cape Verde	Praia
Cayman islands	George Town
Central African Republic	Bangui
Chad	N'Djamena
Chile	Santiago
China	Beijing (Peking)
Christmas Island	The Settlement
Cocos Islands	West Island
Colombia	Santafé de Bogotá
Comoros	Moroni (on Grande Comoro)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Kinshasa
Congo, Republic of	Brazzaville
Cook Islands	Avarua
Costa Rica	San José
Côte d'Ivoire	Yamoussoukro (official) Largest city and administrative center: Abidjan
Croatia	Zagreb
Cuba	Havana
Cyprus	Lefkosia
Czech Republic	Prague
Denmark	Copenhagen
Djibouti	Djibouti
Dominica	Roseau
Dominican Republic	Santo Domingo
East Timor	Dili
Ecuador	Quito
53. Egypt	Cairo
El Salvador	San Salvador
Equatorial Guinea	Malabo
Eritrea	Asmara
Estonia	Tallinn
Ethiopia	Addis Ababa
Fiji	Suva (on Viti Levu)
Finland	Helsinki
France	Paris
Gabon	Libreville
Gambia	Banjul
Georgia	Tbilisi
Germany	Berlin (capital since Oct. 3, 1990)
Ghana	Accra
Greece	Athens
Grenada	St. George's
Guatemala	Guatemala City
70. Guinea	Conakry
71. Guinea-Bissau	Bissau
72.Guyana	Georgetown
73. Haiti	Port-au-Prince
Honduras	Tegucigalpa
Hungary	Budapest
Iceland	Reykjavik
India	New Delhi
Indonesia	Jakarta
Iran	Tehran
Iraq	Baghdad
Ireland	Dublin
Israel	Jerusalem
Italy	Rome
Jamaica	Kingston
Japan	Tokyo
Jordan	Amman
Kazakhstan	Astana (formerly Aqmola; capital since 1997)
Kenya	Nairobi
Kiribati	Tarawa
Korea, North	Pyongyang
Korea, South	Seoul
Kuwait	Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan	Bishkek (formerly Frunze)
Laos	Vientiane
Latvia	Riga
Lebanon	Beirut
Lesotho	Maseru
Liberia	Monrovia
Libya	Tripoli
Liechtenstein	Vaduz
Lithuania	Vilnius
Luxembourg	Luxembourg
Macedonia	Skopje
Madagascar	Antananarivo
Malawi	Lilongwe
Malaysia	Kuala Lumpur
Maldives	Malé
Mali	Bamako
Malta	Valletta
Marshall Islands	Majuro
Mauritania	Nouakchott
Mauritius	Port Louis
Mexico	Mexico City
Micronesia	Palikir
Moldova	Chisinau
Monaco	Monaco
Mongolia	Ulaan Baatar
Montenegro	Podgorica (administrative capital), Cetinje (capital city)
Morocco	Rabat
Mozambique	Maputo
Myanmar	Rangoon (Yangon)
Namibia	Windhoek Summer capital: Swakopmund
Nauru	Yaren
Nepal	Kathmandu
Netherlands	Amsterdam (official) The Hague (administrative capital)
New Zealand	Wellington
Nicaragua	Managua
Niger	Niamey
Nigeria	Abuja
Norway	Oslo
Oman	Muscat
Pakistan	Islamabad
Palau	Koror
Palestinian State (proposed)	Undetermined
Panama	Panama City
Papua New Guinea	Port Moresby
Paraguay	Asunción
Peru	Lima
Philippines	Manila
Poland	Warsaw
Portugal	Lisbon
Qatar	Doha
Romania	Bucharest
Russia	Moscow
Rwanda	Kigali
St. Kitts and Nevis	Basseterre (on St. Kitts
St. Lucia	Castries
St. Vincent and the Grenadines	Kingstown
Samoa	Apia
San Marino	San Marino
São Tomé and Príncipe	São Tomé
Saudi Arabia	Riyadh
Senegal	Dakar
Serbia	Belgrade
Seychelles	Victoria
Sierra Leone	Freetown
Singapore	Singapore
Slovakia	Bratislava
Slovenia	Ljubljana
Solomon Islands	Honiara (on Guadalcanal)
Somalia	Mogadishu
South Africa	Pretoria Legislative capital and largest city: Cape Town Judicial capital: Bloemfontein
Spain	Madrid
Sri Lanka	Colombo; Legislative and judicial capital: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte
Sudan	Khartoum
Suriname	Paramaribo
Swaziland	Mbabane Royal and legislative capital: Lobamba
Sweden	Stockholm
Switzerland	Bern
Syria	Damascus
Taiwan	Taipei
Tajikistan	Dushanbe
Tanzania	Dodoma
Thailand	Bangkok
Togo	Lomé
Tonga	Nuku'alofa
Trinidad and Tobago	Port-of-Spain
Tunisia	Tunis
Turkey	Ankara
180.Turkmenistan	Ashgabat
181. Tuvalu	Funafuti
182. Uganda	Kampala
183. Ukraine	Kyiv (Kiev)
184. United Arab Emirates, the	Abu Dhabi
185. United Kingdom, the	London
186. United States, the	Washington, DC
187. Uruguay	Montevideo
188. Uzbekistan	Tashkent
189. Vanuatu	Port Vila
190. Venezuela	Caracas
191. Vietnam	Hanoi
192. Western Sahara (proposed state)	El Aaiun
193. Yemen	Sanaá
194. Zambia	Lusaka
195. Zimbabwe	Harare

APPENDIX IV. TEXTS FOR READING

Text 1. Moscow

Human settlement on Moscow’s territory dates from the Stone Age, which began about 2.5 million years ago and lasted in this region until about 4000 bc. By ad 1100 Moscow was a small town at the confluence of the Neglinnaia and Moscow rivers. Records from 1147 show the city as a possession of Yuri Dolgoruki, prince of the Vladimir-Suzdal’ principality in Kievan Rus, the first significant East Slavic state. Still a relatively minor city, Moscow survived the Mongol invasions of the 13th century, when all of Kievan Rus fell under the rule of the Tatar khanate, or empire, known as the Golden Horde. Moscow prospered under the Moscow princes during Tatar rule, which ended in the late 14th century. In its favored position at the intersection of trade routes, Moscow expanded in size and importance. The capital of its own principality from the 14th century, it became the capital of a unified Russian state in the 15th century. In 1589 it became the ecclesiastical capital of the Russian Orthodox Church.

In 1712 Russian emperor Peter the Great ordered that Russia’s seat of government be moved from Moscow to Saint Petersburg. However, Moscow remained sufficiently important to be a target of conquest by French emperor Napoleon I. In 1812 Napoleon’s troops defeated Russian forces at Borodino, near the outskirts of Moscow. As French troops advanced, Muscovites evacuated the city, setting fire to many buildings as they left. Napoleon and his troops occupied the largely deserted city for 39 days, until food shortages forced them out. The fire destroyed more than two-thirds of Moscow’s buildings. In 1813 a commission was appointed to rebuild the city, and plans and designs executed over the next 30 years changed the face of Moscow dramatically.

Preceding the Russian Revolution of 1917, Moscow was the site of revolutionary activities against the imperial government, and, once the monarchy was overthrown, of further activities against the Provisional Government set up in its place. During the October (or November, in the Western, or New Style, calendar) phase of the revolution, the Bolsheviks (radical socialists) succeeded in taking the Kremlin after a weeklong struggle. This, along with a similar Bolshevik victory in Petrograd (as Saint Petersburg was then known), toppled the Provisional Government and allowed the Bolsheviks to establish a socialist regime. In 1918 the Bolsheviks moved the seat of government to Moscow. When they founded the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922, the city officially became the Soviet capital.

During World War II (1939-1945) Moscow was the military headquarters of the Soviet government. In October 1941 German Nazi troops approached the city, but they were unsuccessful in capturing it. On December 6 the Soviet army launched a counterattack that was successful in forcing the Nazi troops to retreat from Moscow, renewing the spirit of the Soviet forces. The city increased its production of weapons, enabling it to give more aid to the front, and new military units and hospitals were organized. Industries that the Soviet government had relocated to more protected locations in the country’s interior gradually returned, and the economy began to recover. Moscow’s postwar years were marked by increased migration into the city and steady urban growth. In 1960 Moscow’s boundaries were expanded to the Outer Ring Road, more than doubling the city’s area. In the 1980s the Zelenograd district outside this boundary was brought under the administrative control of the city government as well.

In 1991 Moscow was the scene of a coup attempt by Communist hard-liners opposed to the democratic reforms of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Citizens took to the streets of Moscow to fight the attempted takeover. Although the coup failed, Gorbachev resigned soon afterward, and the USSR was formally dissolved later that year. Since then, the emergence of a market economy in Russia has produced an explosion of Western-style retailing, services, architecture, and lifestyles in Moscow.

Text 2. Russia

In the 14th and 15th centuries a powerful Russian state began to grow around Moscow. It gradually expanded west and southwest toward the Dnieper River, north to the Arctic Ocean, and east to the Ural Mountains. By the 18th century Russia had gained full control over a number of major rivers, giving it access to the Baltic and Black seas. These conquests had a huge impact on the country’s trade and economic development. The Russian Empire continued to grow. At its greatest extent, in 1914 before World War I (1914-1918), the empire included more than 20 million sq km (8 million sq mi), nearly one-sixth of the land area of the Earth.

The empire’s heartland centered on Moscow and was the original homeland of the Great Russians, the chief ethnic component of the Russian Empire. To the east of the empire lay Siberia, which by 1914 had an overwhelmingly Russian population. The western borderlands were home to Ukrainians and Belarusians; the empire considered these Orthodox Slavs to be merely branches of the Russian people who spoke somewhat strange, regional dialects. In the northwest were Finland and the Baltic provinces (now Latvia and Estonia); their Protestant populations were very different from the Russians, both culturally and linguistically. Most of Poland, along with Lithuania, was acquired in the late 18th century. Transcaucasia, with its partly Muslim population, was absorbed in the early 19th century; most of Central Asia, almost entirely Muslim, was absorbed a generation later.

The Russian Empire fell in 1917. Most of its territory was inherited by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR, or Soviet Union), a communist state that existed until 1991. When the USSR collapsed, the Russian Federation became its principal successor state.

Text 3. Russia in World War I

The Russian government did not want war in 1914 but felt that the only alternative was acceptance of German domination of Europe. Upper- and middle-class Russians rallied around the regime’s war effort. Peasants and workers were much less enthusiastic. Germany was Europe’s leading military and industrial power, and Austria and the Ottoman Empire were its allies in the war. Consequently, Russia was forced to fight on three fronts and was isolated from its French and British war partners. Under these circumstances the Russian war effort was impressive. Having won a number of major battles in 1916, the army was far from defeated when the Russian Revolution of 1917 broke out in February. The home front collapsed under the strains of war, partly for economic reasons but primarily because the already existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by tales of inefficiency, corruption, and even treason in high places. Many of these tales were nonsense or grossly exaggerated, such as the belief that a semiliterate mystic, Grigory Rasputin, had great political influence within the government. What mattered, however, was that the rumors were believed.

In February (March in the Western, or New Style, calendar) 1917 violent strikes broke out in Petrograd (as Saint Petersburg had been renamed in 1914). The Petrograd garrison mutinied and the Duma leaders took power. Nicholas II was forced to abdicate, marking the end of imperial rule, and he and his family were imprisoned and later murdered. As conservative defenders of the empire had long predicted, the monarchy’s fall was quickly followed by the empire’s disintegration. Power passed first to the provisional government established by the Duma, and then, after the October Revolution of 1917 (November in the New Style calendar), to the Soviet government of the Bolsheviks (later known as communists). The tumultuous period was marked by extreme socialist revolution, civil war, and the destruction or emigration of much of the upper and middle classes.

Text 4. Peter the Great

Peter the Great or Peter I (1672-1725) was the tsar and, later, emperor of Russia (1682-1725), who is linked with the Westernization of Russia and its rise as a great power.

Peter the Great was virtually unconditionally admired, almost worshiped, in his native country by the educated public during the Age of Enlightenment, which followed after his death and which he had done so much to introduce. He then became a subject of argument in the first half of the 19th century among such ideologists as the Westernizers, who applauded Peter’s accomplishments, and the Slavophiles, who claimed he had betrayed his country’s traditions with his reforms.

While historical studies provided a more realistic context for understanding Peter the Great and his significance, his figure remained immense in Russian literature and culture. Even Soviet Marxist writing after the Russian Revolution of 1917 applauded the emperor. Soviet historians de-emphasized the role of personality in history and stressed the oppressive feudal nature of Peter’s reign, but they glorified his creation of the navy, his military reform and victories, and the emergence of Russia as a great world power. All Soviet schoolchildren were brought up on that dual, even contradictory, interpretation. With the collapse of the Soviet state in 1991, Peter the Great again became a magnet for a variety of different evaluations.

Text 5. The History of Britain

Ancient Britain, term used to denote the island of Great Britain before the Germanic invasions. The name Britain comes from the Latin name Britannia, which the ancient Romans applied to the island, and the name Britain is still widely used to mean Great Britain or even all of the British Isles.

PRE-ROMAN BRITAIN

Before the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century ad, the island was not significant in the history of Western civilization. The first detailed description of it and its inhabitants was written by the Greek navigator Pytheas, who explored the coastal region about 325 bc. Little trace, however, has been left of the language or civilization of the original inhabitants, other than megalithic monuments, such as Stonehenge, which date from the Bronze Age (circa 2000 bc). Between the Bronze Age and about the 6th century bc, Britain was inhabited by Picts and European Celts, who periodically invaded the British Isles until the 1st century bc.

ROMAN BRITAIN

Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 bc and returned the following year to defeat the native forces. The inhabitants, referred to collectively as Britons, maintained political freedom and paid tribute to Rome for almost a century before the Roman emperor Claudius I initiated the systematic conquest of Britain in ad43. By 47, Roman legions had occupied all the island south of the Humber River and east of the Severn River. The tribes, inhabitants of what are now the Wales and Yorkshire regions, resisted stubbornly for more than 30 years, a period that was marked by the abortive and bloody rebellion in 61 led by the native queen Boudicca. At this time Britain became an imperial province of Rome, called Britannia, administered by Roman governors. About 79, Roman legions subdued the tribes in Wales and established partial control over those in Yorkshire. Between 79 and 85, Roman forces commanded by Gnaeus Julius Agricola moved through the northern section of the island, completing their conquest to the Firth of Forth. Agricola also pushed northward into Caledonia (now called Scotland), but the region between the firths of Forth and Clyde remained disputed territory. The Caledonian tribes, the Picts, retained their independence.

Little is known of the relations between the Britons and their conquerors between 85 and 115. Shortly after 115, the natives rose in revolt against their overlords and annihilated the Roman garrison at Eboracum (now York). As a result, the Roman emperor Hadrian visited Britain in 122 and began the construction of a rampart 117 km (73 mi) long, reaching from Solway Firth, on the Irish Sea, to the mouth of the Tyne River. Fragments of this wall, called Hadrian's wall, still stand. Twenty years later, another wall, called the Antonine Wall, was built across the narrowest part of the island, from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde. The region between the two walls was a defense area against the Caledonians, who were eventually driven north of Hadrian's Wall in the 3rd century. The wall marked the northern Roman frontier during the next 200 years, a period of relative peace.

During the period of conquest and military campaigns, Britain was a military stronghold of the Roman army, but the people of Britain benefited from Roman technology and cultural influences. The native tribes became familiar with many features of Roman civilization, including its legal and political systems, architecture, and engineering. Numerous towns were established, and these strongholds were linked by a vast network of military highways, many remnants of which survive. Archaeological evidence from the occupation period indicates that the Romans brought their entire culture to Britain. In general, however, only the native nobility, the wealthier classes, and the town residents accepted the Roman language and way of life, while the Britons in outlying regions retained their native culture.

At the end of the 3rd century, the Roman army began to withdraw from Britain to defend other parts of the Roman Empire. In 410, when the Visigoths invaded Rome, the last of the Roman legions were withdrawn from the island. Celtic culture again became predominant, and Roman civilization in Britain rapidly disintegrated.

Angles (people) (Latin Angli), Germanic tribe that occupied the region still called Angeln in what is now the state of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. Together with the Saxons and Jutes, they invaded Britain during the 5th century ad. With their kindred ethnic groups, they formed the people who came to be known as the English. The name England is derived from them.

Saxons, Germanic people who first appear in history after the beginning of the Christian era. The earliest mention of the Saxons is by the Alexandrian mathematician and geographer Ptolemy in the 2nd century ad, at which time they appear to have dwelt in the south Jutland Peninsula in the north of what is now Germany. They conducted piratical raids in the North Sea area. In the second half of the 4th century, the Saxons invaded Roman domains, and by the close of the 6th century all northwest Germany as far east as the Elbe River had become Saxon territory. In the 5th and 6th centuries, some groups of Saxons invaded Britain, where they were joined by other Germanic peoples, the Angles and the Jutes. At the beginning of the 7th century, the Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain was practically completed. In the 8th century, the Frankish king Pepin the Short attacked the Saxons who remained in Germany. His son, Charlemagne, subdued them after a series of fierce wars lasting from 772 to 804 and forced them to accept Christianity. In the course of the 9th century, a great Saxon duchy came into existence under Frankish sovereignty, and its rulers established a dynasty of German kings in the 10th century. This old duchy of Saxony was dissolved toward the end of the 12th century, and the name of Saxony later passed over to an entirely different region.

Text 6. Archaeology

Archaeology, the scientific study of past human culture and behavior, from the origins of humans to the present. Archaeology studies past human behavior through the examination of material remains of previous human societies. These remains include the fossils (preserved bones) of humans, food remains, the ruins of buildings, and human artifacts—items such as tools, pottery, and jewelry. From their studies, archaeologists attempt to reconstruct past ways of life. Archaeology is an important field of anthropology, which is the broad study of human culture and biology. Archaeologists concentrate their studies on past societies and changes in those societies over extremely long periods of time.

Archaeology is distinct from paleontology and studies only past human life. Archaeology also examines many of the same topics explored by historians. But unlike history—the study of written records such as government archives, personal correspondence, and business documents—most of the information gathered in archaeology comes from the study of objects lying on or under the ground (see History and Historiography).

Archaeologists refer to the vast store of information about the human past as the archaeological record. The archaeological record encompasses every area of the world that has ever been occupied by humans, as well as all of the material remains contained in those areas. Archaeologists study the archaeological record through field surveys and excavations and through the laboratory study of collected materials.

Archaeology became established as a formal discipline in the 19th and early 20th centuries. At that time, most archaeological work was confined to Europe, to the so-called cradle of civilization in southwestern Asia, and to a few areas of the Americas. Today, archaeologists study the great cultural diversity of humanity in every corner of the world.

Text 7. An Archaeologist In The Field

The life of an archaeologist is a fascinating one, but it is certainly not what action-adventure movies would lead you to believe. The Indiana Jones myth—the idea that archaeology consists of swashbuckling forays into exotic lands that yield swift and spectacular results—is one that needs dispelling. In fact, those forays are highly criticized by real archaeologists, because the swashbuckling destroys the archaeological record, a record that is very fragile and crucial to preserve.

In real life, a strong back, a knack with a shovel, and the ability to rec­ognize when the shovel should be laid aside and the trowel and small brushes be brought to the fore are much more useful than prowess with a bullwhip or being able to outrun careening boulders. Our bounty is much more likely to consist of clay pots, the bones of ancient animals, and arrowheads than hoards of precious gems. An iron constitution that allows one to adjust to strange but nutritious (and always monotonous) food also helps; after a couple of weeks on the steppes our volunteers fantasize about "gourmet fare" like hamburgers, ice cream, and pizza.

With the demise of the Soviet Union, the train trip from Moscow to Sol Iletsk, once a pleasant thirty-six-hour journey, has become increas­ingly hazardous as increasing numbers of ruffians are now free to travel within Russian borders…The teeth-jarring twenty-five-mile ride from the train to our Pokrovka camp over the broken-asphalt highway, with us sardined on unpadded wooden benches in the back of our Russian military truck, was a less hazardous trip but infinitely more uncomfortable.

Our volunteers also must realize that they’re venturing into territory without ready access to state-of-the-art medical facilities. When one young woman became seriously ill, Yablonsky had to drive four hours to the nearest airport at Orenburg and then summon up all his charm and influ­ence to land her a ticket to Moscow. Due to the lack of clinics and stores, we always have to pack all the medical supplies we might possibly need during a dig. On one extensive drugstore run before a trip, the pharma­cist pensively looked over my stash of varied antibiotics, bandages of all types and sizes, analgesics, antibacterial ointments, motion-sickness pills, and antidiarrheral medicines. He shook his head. "I hope you get well very soon," he said in a sympathetic voice.

Most of the time my little speech about spartan living conditions, unfa­miliar foods and customs, hard labor, and seemingly modest finds succeeds in weeding out the eager but unsuitable souls. However, once in a while a mismatch slips in. I was forced to send one pleasant and eager woman home after the pervasive dust from the dig kicked her asthma into over­drive. To be sure, more than a few volunteers found that pitching dirt for hours under a glaring sun could be exhausting… (Warrior Women p.14-15)