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230

Е.К. Симонова-Гудзенко

тами карты, печатавшимися в многократно издававшихся с периода Муромати толковых словарях «Сэцуёсю»52 и мно­

гих других книгах. Марсия Ёнэмото отмечает, что, созда­ вая карты Японии («Хонтё дзукан комоку» 1687 г. и «Нихон кайсан тёрику дзу» 1689 г.53), Рюсэн опирался на карту Гёги

в изданном в XVII в. «Сюгайсё»: на этих картах в колофоне мастер написал, что он уточнил карту Гёги, исправив не­ сообразности и напечатав её54. Основные черты карт этого типа заключаются в следующем: архипелаг простирается с запада на восток, изображаются три больших острова (без северного Эдзо), разделенные на 66 провинций овальной формы; выделен центр провинция Ямасиро, где распола­

галась императорская столица Хэйан/Киото, откуда берут начало восемь дорог55. Поскольку карты этого типа имели в значительной степени религиозное значение, то форма ар­ хипелага на них воспроизводит (напоминает) ритуальный предмет тантрического буддизма, ваджру56.

1294 г. (Нихонси бункэн кайдай дзитэн. Токио: Ёсикава кобункан, 2000. С. 492). Этот же год создания обнаруживается и в японской Википедии (http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/). Французский словарь источников клас­ сической Японии отмечает, что энциклопедия была создана около 1300 г. (Dictionnaire des sources du Japon classique. Paris: College de France, Broche, 2007. P. 380). Единодушны исследователи в том, что впервые она была на­ печатана в начале XVII в.

52

53 В карте Японии «Нихон дзу» 1691 г., с которой мне посчастливилось ра­ ботать в библиотеке Университета Киото, подобного упомянутому М. Ёнэмото колофона не обнаружено.

54Yonemoto М. The Spatial Vernacular in Tokugawa Maps. P. 655, 657.

55О сакральном статусе системы дорог как ориентационной системе см.: Симонова-Гудзенко Е.К. Япония VII-IX вв. М.: Восток-Запад, 2005. С. 193207.

56Unno Kazutaka. Cartography in Japan // The History of Cartography: Car­ tography in the Traditional East and Southeas Asian Societies / Ed. by D. Wood­ ward and J.B. Harley. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. P. 366-371; Dolce L. Mapping the “Divine country^: Sacred Geography and International con­ cerns in Medieval Japan // Korea in the Middle: Korean Studies and Area Stud­ ies: Essays in Honour of Bondewijn Walraven / Ed. Remco E. Breuker. Univer­ sity of Leiden, 2007. P. 289-311; Оодзи Тосиаки. Этидзу-но сэкай дзо (Образ мира в иллюстрированных картах). Токио: Иванами сётэн, 1996; Мещеряков

А.Н. Раннеяпонские карты как феномен культуры // Япония в объятиях про­ странства и времени. М.: Наталис, 2010.

232 Е.К. Симонова-Гудзенко

окружающего мира: Корею (Тёсэн), Китай (Кара/Морокоси). При этом Рюсэн в общем сохранил обозначения, принятые на картах Гёги, обозначив пространство Кореи на карте обшир­ нее Китая58. Он также отметил острова Оки, Рюкю, Расэцу коку (Страна демонов-ракшасов), Нёгога Сима (Остров женщин), Кари-но Сима (Северный необитаемый остров) и др. Представ­ ляется важным, что художник показывает как реальные, так и вымышленные страны, причем последние явно заимствованы с карт Гёги. Строго говоря, это не просто карта Японии, но и карта мира. Рюсэн подкрепляет это положение помещенной в левом верхнем углу таблицей расстояний от Японии до Голлан­ дии, России, Нанкина, Тонкина и др.

На всех картах архипелага Рюсэн нет выраженного цен­ тра: Мияко, императорская столица, обозначена иероглифом в круге мельче, чем названия провинций, замки даймё. Сто­ лица бакуфу Эдо, отмечена знаком-рисунком замка, кото­ рый мельче, чем храмовый комплекс Тосёгу. Последний нари­ сован настолько подробно, насколько позволяло пространство карты: тории, дороги и три строения, а также указаны окру­ жающие горы. Обозначения замков разные, фиксирующие величину и значение владельца, всегда прорисован донжон, написано название и доход в коку риса. Самые большие зам­ ки Эдо и Осака, самые маленькие — Бидзэн и Нагато. В пря­ моугольниках с названиями провинций указано количество уездов и доход в коку риса.

Подробно отмечены буддийские храмы, причем не толь­ ко главные в провинции, но и второстепенные. На некоторых вариантах карты архипелага представлена таблица главных святилищ по провинциям. Изображение Исэ-дзишу менее вы­ разительно, чем Ицукусима, хотя отмечены и подписаны Гэку и Найку, входящие в состав святилища Исэ. Оба они не подпи­ саны, вероятно потому, что были и так широко известны, но в знаках-рисзшках обоих ясно видны тории — символ границы сакрального пространства. Это условное обозначение появля­ ется на планах и схемах земельных владений сёэн еще в XI в.

58 На карте Сёмёдзи Китай нарисован неправильным треугольником справа и написано: Морокоси/Кара куни, состоит из 366 провинций; в ле­ вом нижнем углу — Корея, обозначена как Силла, Сираги-куни и включает 566 провинций. Dolce L. Mapping the „Divine country^... P. 299.

234

Е.К. Симонова-Гудзенко

струкции. Однако преобладают небольшие, и чем дальше к востоку, тем лодки становятся меньше, пока не превращают­ ся в рыбацкие лодочки. На севере у побережья, примерно от провинции Тамба и восточнее, лодочек также довольно много, но изображены они весьма схематично, одним парусом (рос­ черком). Вероятно, это должно показать удаленность севера, а с другой стороны, это, возможно, и некоторый намёк на пер­ спективу, если считать, что взгляд направлен с юга. В лодках часто изображены работающие люди, например рыбаки с се­ тями. Все прорисовано очень тщательно, даже самые утлые суденышки. На некоторых вариантах карты архипелага па­ руса окрашены разным цветом.

Природные объекты также тщательно прорисованы. Изо­ бражения гор разные: пологие и с острыми вершинами. Любо­ пытно, что названия гор представлены избирательно. Напри­ мер, подписаны гора Цукуба и Сираяма, а надписи «Фудзи» обнаружить не удалось, хотя гора с тремя вершинами между провинциями Сагами и Суруга прорисована тщательно.

Уже только из этого краткого выборочного анализа изображения можно сделать вывод, что лаконичная карта Гёги, используемая в качестве ритуального инструмента, став ути­ литарным предметом, талантом Рюсэн превращается в завлека­ тельный объект, насыщенный разнообразной информацией.

Многие историки картографии упрекают Исикава Рюсэн, что в его картах превалирует изобразительный компонент в ущерб точности. Но, как и для его современников, для нас се­ годня карты представляют интерес и возбуждают любопыт­ ство, являясь богатым источником по истории, географии, экономике, демографии, изобразительному искусству Япо­ нии периода Гэнроку. Каждое произведение Рюсэн заслужи­ вает самостоятельного подробного исследования.

Hokusai Manga: Its Title and Its Genre

E. Steiner

(National Research University Higher School ofEconomics)

This publication investigates the meaning of the title and su­ pra-heading of Hokusai Manga (subsequently in this text — HM) and provides a detailed analysis of the term manga which is dif­ ficult to understand and translate. In doing so, it puts HMinto the context ofthe early modem Japanese picture-books and offers an attempt to classify its genre1.

It is widely known that during the course ofhis long life Hoku­ sai (1760-1849) drew and published albums (or picture books — ehon) which he called Manga: “random, whimsical, or funny pictures”. HM has a sacral status for connoisseurs and lovers of Japanese art, but does it truly merit all this high esteem? It is a great masterpiece, indeed, but its admirers sometimes ascribe to it what is not there — such as the epithets “first” or “foremost.” Under close scrutiny it appears that this seemingly well-known oeuvre posits more questions than it offers ready answers. In oth­ er words, HM is a cult name, but what stands behind it?

Let us take the authorship: it is quite feasible that the First volume had included not only Hokusai’s drawings but also those of several of his disciples. Such doubts extend beyond the indi­ vidual drawings: if we look closely at the design of the pages and double-spreads, we might question whether it was Hokusai him­ self who composed them. In many cases, they were designed by his editors. We should also consider the composition of the whole volumes, in other words the thematic order and progression of

1This study was carried out within "The National Research University High­ er School of Economics, Academic Fund Program in 2013-2014, research grant No. № 12-01-0197".

236 E. Steiner

the pages. The majority of specialists believe that there is no or­ der in the sequence of pages at all, whereas in many cases it is possible, in my opinion, to suggest a rather strict compositional schema organized in a detailed fashion and based on subtie as­ sociations. Or, let us look at the pragmatic purpose of HM: there are some indications that it was created as a manual for fledgling artists or as collections of humorous pictures and cartoons for sheer amusement, or as a pictorial thesaurus ofthings Japanese. How do we reconcile this? Or, take the editions: what should we call the canonical edition of HM?

This publication investigates the meaning of the title and su­ pra-heading of HM and provides a detailed analysis of the term manga which is difficult to understand and translate. In doing so, it puts HM into the context of the early modem Japanese pic­ ture-books and offers an attempt to classify its genre.

Journey to the West and the Birth of Hokusai Manga

A testimony to the origin of the First volume of HM (and there was not even the slightest hint of further installments) can be found in the Introduction by Hanshu Sanjin (1772-

1824). It says:

«This autumn the Reverend set off for thejourney to the Western [provinces] and made a stop in our land. We all met together at Gekkotei Bokusen, and it was an immensely joyous pastime. During that time more than three hundred ofall sorts ofsketches were made — from [Taoist] immortals and Buddhist saints to warriors and women, and down to birds and beasts and all kinds of plants and trees».

Let us note that it talks about Hokusai’s journey in 1812 (the date is given at the end of this Introduction) to the provinces west of Edo, when he made a stop at Nagoya and participated in a drawing event (or a few events) with a group of local artists at the house of a certain Bokusen. From the language of the text it is not clear whether it was a single party or whether they gathered several times. The verb form (urete) can designate one occasion: “gathered once.” Because of this, many previous authors wrote that, on the occasion of the visit of the celebrity from the capital

Hokusai Manga: Its Title and Its Genre

237

(Hokusai was slightly over fifty, and it was the time of the begin­ ning of his fame), the local artists and other people of the brush (calligraphers and poets) gathered for a party in his honor. During the party, with Hokusai and the whole company in high spirits because of spirits and lofty conversation, an impromptu drawing marathon ensued. This kind of gathering with brushes to hand (not to mention wine cups) was popular among artists and lovers of painting. The genre might be described as something midway between a speed drawing contest and a demonstration ofvirtuos­ ity and wit in the treatment of a certain theme. Such gatherings were sometimes called “battles in ink” and were known by their representation in prints or prose. As a genre, they perfectly corre­ spond with the communal and agonal character ofthe traditional Japanese forms of creative acts. They can be called a visual par­ allel to poetic contests uta-awase or meetings for the col­ lective composition of linked poetry rengakai . As was the case with poems and individual strophes composed during such gatherings, they were gathered, arranged and published as a sin­ gle volume. Thus, the supporters of this point of view claim that the First volume of HM is the output of this one super-productive night and is thus a chaotic agglomerate of inspired sketches with no unifying plan or organizing idea.

While I am sympathetic to the idea of the inspired (and even untrammeled) drawing during a convivial meeting of colleagues and admirers, I do not support the legend that it all occurred on a single night. More than three hundred sketches are mentioned by Sanjin; it woula be impossible to draw so many at one sitting. Let us say it was exactly three hundred for the sake of an easy count. If the merrymaking lasted eight hours (which is quite a long time), the time available for the uninterrupted process of drawing works out at 1.6 minutes for one sketch — without any breaks for talking, drinking and toilet visits. And there is no time at all for thinking and planning what else to draw. If we imag­ ine that the party lasted for ten hours (which is rather difficult to imagine), this gives precisely two minutes for each drawing; this is equally hard to accomplish. Certainly, some small sketches are simple enough to be jotted down in a few seconds, but there are many others, large and detailed, that would not have been easy to draw even in five minutes. And, of course, although Hokusai was “mad about drawing,”he was not a robot who required no breaks.

238

E. Steiner

In order to salvage the ‘one night’ theory, one might suggest that a good half of the drawings had been executed not by the master himself but by other participants. If we talk about two or three, or perhaps, fifteen, it may possibly have taken place. The volume was composed within the timespan of two years by two of Hokusai’s disciples: the same Bokusen and Hokuun. Both were pretty good artists, and both issued their own picture books with draw­ ings typologically similar to Hokusai’s. Nevertheless, the signed albums of both Bokusen and Hokuun differ in an obvious way from the drawings in HM. At the same time, the majority of draw­ ings there — whether scrupulously finished or sketchy and ab­ breviated — betray Hokusai’s own hand.

Thus, the idea of one great night should be left aside. Hoku­ sai stayed in Nagoya for several days, and there may have been more than one drawing party. Also, as Hokusai’s journey lasted a few months, he had to accumulate a huge quantity of all kinds of sketches — from street scenes and landscapes to depictions of animals and birds. In the world’s museums can be found hun­ dreds of his drawings made on scraps of paper of various sizes and forms and pasted on album pages. It is more than feasible that, in Bokusen’s studio, Hokusai not only drew but also demon­ strated his road sketches. Before his departure he left them to his local admirers. After two years they were organized into a compact picture book volume.

The Term Manga

These days, when they speak of manga, people usually mean thick volumes of comics or perhaps graphic novels for adult (often young) audiences. This kind of picture book appeared at the end ofthe Meiji epoch in Japan and gained enormous popularity in the following decades when itworked out its own themes (sentimental juvenile love affairs or brutal adventures), style (black-and-white precisely drafted figures with the minimum of background and with dialogue texts in bubbles), and poetics (dynamic action; combination of general views with large fragments in their own frames on one page, etc.) This modern manga can be only partially linked with the manga of Hokusai’s times. To a substantial degree it is also a fruit of the familiarity with Western magazines’ cartoons.

Hokusai Manga: Its Title and Its Genre

239

When Hokusai titled the first issue ofhis manga uHokusaiManga,nthis word was rare enough, and the colossal success of this picture book and the following volumes precipitated imitations in the genre and in the usage of the word “manga” itself. Since those times and up to the present day, Hokusai is often called the pro­ genitor of manga— by amanga, ^people mean both contemporary comics and certain picture books of his epoch2. Neither assertion is entirely correct. Hokusai was not the first to create such books and was not even the first to use the word in a book title. We must now discuss the history of the term “manga” in more detail.

Hanshu Sanjin, the author of the Introduction to the First volume, wrote that Hokusai himself, when asked what he would like to call the book, answered: Manga. Usually, it is translated as “random pictures.” (There is also a popular rendering as Hokusai Sketchbooks, but Hokusai Manga is far more thanjust sketches.) The dictionary entry for the character man gives the mean­ ing “random, not organized ” but in this case it is incorrect, for it makes little sense. The pictures in HM are not random and dis­ jointed; they are organized in a certain way into a coherent com­ positional entity; we will discuss how this is done later. For now, it is important to say that, thematically, the content of the First vol­ ume was “three hundred odd of all kinds of sketches — from [Tao­ ist] immortals, Buddhist saints, men and women to birds, beasts and various plants,” as Sanjin has written. Thus, judging by the multifarious and comprehensive content of the HM volumes, it would be better to translate this binominal combination of char­ acters as “pictures of all sorts”.

However, the semantic area of the character man includes meanings such as “any, various, irregular, not in order, random, curious, caricaturistic, humorous, or motley^. Thus, it presumes a certain core of free sketchiness, the grotesque, and humor. There are chapters in HM bearing titles such as “comic (or cra­ zy) pictures” (kyoga or “sketchy (abbreviated) pictures” (ryakuga ).These terms as well as similar ones “sketchy (ab­ breviated) brush” ryakuhitsu “rurming brush” sohitsu “crude pictures” soga “mischievous pictures” giga and a dozen of others — were known years before Hokusai. They were

2 See, for instance: Bouquillard J” Marquet Ch. Hokusai, First Manga Mas­ ter. N. Y.: Abrams, 2007.