2. Fill in with the prepositions given below

of, over, for, with, out, of, through, of, over, without, away, of.

1). No wonder, each king wanted to get rid … a parliament.

2). Cromwell was tired … uneffective work of the MPs.

3). To rule the country and maintain order in it he had to govern … the army.

4). Cromwell undertook severe measures in Ireland … killing the Protestants.

5). … advancing years significance of Parliament as a powerful body grew a lot.

6). The Bill of Rights stated that no sovereign could keep army or raise taxes …

consent of Parliament.

7). A great plague swept … London and carried … thousands … Londoners.

8). The Great Fire broken … in London, burnt a majour part … the town … a week.

3. Answer the questions

1). What kind of system is a commonwealth ?

2). How was the country governed during the first Republic ?

3). What did Cromwell undertake to subdue Ireland ?

4). What changes did Cromwell bring to governing the country ?

5). Why did the Republic end with restoration of monarchy ?

6). Who did the Whigs and the Tories consist of ?

7). What did the Bill of Rights state for ever ?

8). What evoked the plague in 1666 ?

9). What was the result of the Great Fire ?

10). What notable event marked the beginning of the 18^th century ?

11). What did the Stuarts do to promote the development of science ?

Speaking * Discuss with your partner

--- What do you think the Irish feel about the relationship with England ?

--- What is your attitude to the England's politics as regards Ireland ?

Writing * write a summary about Oliver Cromwell

- his family backgroun, -- political view points, -- his politics being Head of the government

England Of The 18^th Century

The century was opened with a glorious event - the union of England and Scotland in 1707 in the reign of the last Stuart - Queen Anne. After her death Parliament proclaimed George Hanover, her distant cousin, the heir to the English throne as Queen Anne didn’t have surviving children. Thus George 1 of England started a new dynasty.

George was a strange king: a true German, didn’t speak English, cared little about the country, neglected English traditions. He was called to rule over the country and matters were left mainly in the hands of Ministers. That was unusual for monarchies in Europe where sovereigns had an absolute power. In England monarchy was controlled by Parliament. So the power of the government was increased in the reign of George 1. The great political leader of that time was Robert Walpole who is considered the first Prime Minister. He developed the system with strong constitutional limits of the king’s power and managed to keep the country at peace for many years.

The limits to royal power were the following: the king could not be a Catholic or a Jew; he did not have the right to change laws; he could not have an army; Walpole skilfully developed the idea that government ministers should work together in a small group, which was called the “cabinet”.

He introduced the idea that any minister who disagreed deeply with the others was expected to resign. A very important rule in British politics grew from that rule -- all members of the cabinet were responsible for policy decisions.

The War With France 1756 – 17

The most important political enemy of England in the 18^th century was France. To be economically strong England had to develop international trade. The main rival in the competition for overseas markets was France.

England had a little fringe of colonies along the Atlantic coast of North America -- Virginia, New York, North Carolina, Jersy, South Carolina and others. France had more. The disputes in the Old World found an echo in the New World. It was clear that either England or France must be the ruling power in America. Thus in 1756 the war with France broke out and went on all over the world. Military actions took place in Canada where the English captured Quebec and Montreal. That was the beginning of the great Dominion of Canada and control of the important fish, fur and wood trades. The war was going on in India , too. There the army of the British East India Company defeated the French army and the English started to go to India to make fortune.

During the 18^th century England’s international trade was rapidly growing. The most profitable market in the empire was the triangle formed from West Indies, West Africa and England. The idea was the following: the goods made in English factories were delivered to West Africa where they were exchanged for slaves. The slaves were brought to the West Indies and forced to work on the large sugar plantations or were exchanged for sugar. From there the ships returned to England with sugar, tobacco, coffee.

The century is known for some changes in social life. Though voting remained open – it was not done in secret. The right to take part in elections had only landowners. Clerks, skilled workers, tradesmen couldn’ t discuss the matters of the time. Still the process of democratisation of Parliament, once started, was gradually developing. In the 18^th century the number of newspapers published in the country increased. They sent their reporters to Parliament to listen to discussions and write about them. So politics were no longer a monopoly of the aristocracy and land-owning gentry. The age of public opinion takes its roots in the 18^th century.

Girls continued to be victims of their parents’ desire to match the popular idea of feminin beauty of slim bodies, tight waists, a pale complexion. To achieve this and improve the chance to find a good match, parents forced their daughters into tightly clothes, and gave them little food to avoid an unfashionable healthy apearance.

In this age a desire for privacy grew. Before this British lived in rooms that led one to another, not even the bedrooms were private. But in the 18^th century families began to eat alone, without their servants to listen to their conversations. T

Britain took a lead in slavery and slavery trade, it also took the lead internationally in ending it. The slave trade was abolished in 1807 by law, in the colonies in 1833.

The loss of the American colonies.

In the 18^th century England had to endure the times of loss and troubles when the first colonies broke away from the Mother Country.

The population of the colonies in the New World was rapidly growing. The twelve colonies developed their industries, culture. Step by step the colonists thought themselves as a nation. They decided that it was not fair for the English government to tax the Americans without their agreement. In 1764 there were serious quarrels between the British government and the colonists over the problem. Their point was that they must control their own taxation – the amount must be settled by American Parliament, elected by themselves and they must have their representatives in British Parliament.

The obstinate and foolish rulers in England insisted on the former terms. The events known as the Boston Tea Party became the starting point of the War of Independence. It lasted from 1775 till 1783, and on July 4, 1776, the United States began life as a separate and independent nation. The result for England was devastating – it lost all its colonies in America, except Canada.

The Years of Revolutions

By the middle of the 18^th century industry began to use coal for changing iron ore into steel and on of high quality. Britain became the leading iron producer in Europe. Iron production made it possible to manufacture new machinery for other industries. Many countries became constant customers of England in weapon, equipment trading. With the invention of the spinning machine and the weaving machine the country replaced hard work and that allowed Britain to make cheap cloth. Factories supplied with machinery didn’t need so many workers as before, and that created a serious problem: a lot of workers became unemployed and represented a real threat to the authorities.

Some ten years after the United States became a self-governing republic, the French rose against the oppression of their king and nobles. Their suffering was so bitter that they couldn’t bear it any longer and the country rose in revolution in 1789. For weeks terrible deeds of violence were going on . The king and queen were put to death. France became a Republic. It was then that a young lieutenant first

distinguished himself in the French Army, and rose from one success to another till he

not only ruled the country and its army, but almost all Europe.

One by one the European countries fell under Napoleon’s control. He declared “Let us be masters of the Channel and we are masters of the world”. When his army invaded Holland and Belgium, Britain started war.

Britain decided to fight France at sea because it had a stronger navy. Britain’s two chief heroes of these times are worth mentioning – Horatio Nelson and Arthur Wellington.

The commander of the British fleet, Admiral Nelson, made his name during the wars against France taking part in many sea-battles. He lost his right hand and his right eye but never gave up fighting. He was not only a skilful commander. Nelson enjoyed great love and devotion of his soldiers. He won several brilliant victories over the French navy near the coast of Egypt, at Copenhagen, and finally at Cape Trafalgar, the most south-westerly point of Spain. In 1805 in the battle of Trafalgar the French-Spanish fleet was completely destroyed and Nelson was killed being shot through the spine. “Thank God, I have done my duty” these were his last words. By this victory over Spain, England gained full sovereignity of the seas, so that it needed no longer fear invasion. Its merchant ships could pass safely through the ports in which they traded. Admiral Nelson is Britain’s national hero. A tall column crowned with his statue stands on Trafalgar Square in London in memory of the great man.

Arthur Wellington did much to make British rule in India. Besides, British army landed in Portugal to fight the French. It was commanded by Wellington. Like Nelson, he proved to be a brilliant commander who won several victories over French in Spain, and invaded France. In the long run, Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in Belgium in 1815.

The Age of Power and Prosperity

In the 19^th century England was more powerful and self-confident than ever. After the defeat of Napoleon Britain enjoyed a commanding place in Europe due to its industry, trade and strongest navy. To defend its trade interests it kept ships in almost every ocean of the world.

The situation in Ireland remained miserable. The Protestant Parliament in Dublin passed laws which prevented the Catholics from taking part in national life. Catholics didn’t have the right to vote or be elected to Parliament. There were definite restrictions in some jobs. The Catholics were second-rate class in their won land. In order to increase British control, Ireland was united with Britain in 1801. The Dublin Parliament stopped its functioning and The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was formed. The state lasted for 120 years. Many Irish people were still anxious to have their own parliament again instead of sending men to sit at Westminster.

Since the time of the Union, the red diagonal cross of St.Patric of Ireland has been added to the upright red cross of St.George, the patron saint of England and the white diagonal cross of St.Andrew, the patron saint of Scotland, thus completing the Union Jack. The national flag is a sign of the authority of England.

But the struggle between Catholics and Protestants in Ireland continued as a struggle for freedom from English rule. In the middle of the century Ireland suffered the worst disaster in its entire history: for three years the potato crop failed . The situation was tragic as about 20 per cent of the total Irish population died from hunger. Many Irish emigrated these years, and the emigration continued during the rest of the century. Most emigrants went to the United States of America and settled there because of the great poverty in Motherland. They didn’t forget their own country and never forgave Britain. The Protestant landowners in Ireland grew wheat and exported it to England, so the Irish couldn’t get it. By the end of the century many Irish Americans managed to grow into rich and prosperous. They supported the Irish freedom and nowadays they still have an influence on British policy in Ireland.

The 19^th century is the time of the reign of Queen Victoria. Which was full of great and stirring events for England. Her reign was the longest and the most prosperous in the history of England. She came to the throne as a young woman in 1837 and reigned until her death in 1901. After her husband’s death Victoria for a long time refused to be seen in public. She was criticized by newspapers because many people started to doubt the value of the monarchy and believed it was time for monarchy to die. The Queen did her best to return to the life of the country and to take more interest in the life of the kingdom. And what is more, at the time when the monarchy started to lose its place as an integral part of the British governing system, she managed to establish it as a respected and popular institution. The Queen put the monarchy out of danger. Her practice of insisting on being informed about government policy while remaining neutral fixed the position of the Crown in the Constitution. She made the country safe though it had lost most its political power. The papers wrote:” We have come to believe that it is natural to have a virtuous sovereign. “

One important step back to popularity was the publication of the Queen’s book “Our Life in the Highlands.” It was the Queen’s own diary of her private life with Prince Albert and her family. The democratic British respected the example of the royal family life which the Queen had given them. They saw that the family shared their own moral and religious values. It was unusual for people when they learnt about the monarch’s relations as those of ordinary human beings. The people were impressed by the fact that the Queen wrote about her servants as if they were members of her family. She succeeded in showing the newly industrialized nation that the monarchy was a connection with the glorious history of the country. Her rejection of the amusements and life of the aristocracy enabled the common people to identify themselves with this simple wife and widow. That led to an affirmative values – the integrity and discipline of the family, the sobriety and puritanism of public life – which later came to be known as “Victorian values”. Queen Victoria enjoyed popularity in Europe. She became known as Mother of Europe because she married the members of her family into many royal houses of Europe.

Greater and greater England grew under Queen Victoria. The first steamships from America appeared in Liverpool. Fifteen years later the railway was opened between Liverpool and Manchester. It was a real pride of Britain. The first trains were goods trains, which made transporting faster and cheaper. The network of railway tracks was growing and connected not only industrial towns, but also economically unimportant places. It was soon possible to deliver fresh fish and raspberries from Scotland to London over a night. In 1851 railway companies introduced passenger train service. With the train system people could move from place to place and began to live in the suburbs from which they travelled to the city every day.

The telegraph was invented . This power of getting rapid messages, and of travelling quickly in the fast steamers and trains, drew distant peoples of the earth closer together.

The aristocracy of Europe admired Britain’s success in avoiding the storm of the revolution in 1848. It was the result of the wise policy the Victoria’s government pursued. Both the Whigs and the Tories were afraid of revolution. The Whigs, or Liberals as they later became known, believed that the country could avoid revolution by introducing reforms. In 1830 the Reform Bill was passed in Parliament. It was a progressive step as it gave the right to vote to many people who had previously been deprived of it.

The established regular police forces in London helped the government to solve the problem with criminal. Much crime was pushed out of the larger cities, and then out of the countryside. European monarch wished they were as safe on their thrones as the British queen was. During the whole of the 19^th century Britain was the envy of the world. It was a model of industrial success and of free constitutional government.

Britain became powerful because it had enough coal, iron, steel for its own industry and could export them to Europe. It exported heavy industrial goods like ships and steam engines. It could also make machinery which produced traditional goods – woollen and cotton cloth in the factories of Lancashire. The greatness of Britain’s achievements in industry were shown in 1851 at the Great Exhibition of the Industries of All Nations. It was held in London in the Crystal Palace designed by Prince Albert for this particular event.

The 19^th century is notable for the rise of the middle class. Before the 19^th century it was represented by merchants, traders and small farmers as well as of industrial owners. Now the middle class was made up of people of different strata of society. It included those who worked in the Church, the Law, medicine, the civil service, the diplomatic service, banks, and also in the army and navy. Peculiar of the 19^th century was the rise of self-made men who came from poor families. They worked hard, were careful with money and led a regular style of life and succeeded in making pockets.

The life in towns was gradually improving. In the middle of the 19^th century municipal administration began to appoint health officers and to provide sewerage and clan water. The measures reduced the level of diseases, in particular, cholera. Besides, public baths were opened, town parks were laid out in newly built areas.

The British political system of today was mostly built in the middle of the century. The two parties, Tory, or Conservatives, and Liberal developed greater party organisations and demanded loyalty from their members. Democracy grew quickly. In 1872 for the first time voting was carried out in secret. The growth of newspaper industry strengthened the significance of public opinion. The House of Commons grew in size and the House of Lords lost the powerful position in forming the state policy.

The British Wars of The 19^th Century

Long years of peace abroad gave England time to set its affairs in order and to progress at home. But unhappily the country was dragged into a war with Russia in the middle of the 19^th century. During long times England and France were fighting on opposite sides but in 1853 the allies made war on a little peninsular called the Crimea, on north of the Black sea. Both were afraid that Russia would become too powerful and destroy the weak Ottoman Empire which controlled the Middle East and the Arab countries. England didn’t want Russia to expand its territories by taking over the Slavonic parts of Turkey’s possessions in the Balkans and reach the Mediterranean. So Britain supported Turkey against Russian expansion and joined the Turkeys against Russia.

It was a grievous war. After forty years of peace men seemed to have forgotten how to arrange campaigns. They didn’t have proper clothes or boots, food or arms. The bitter weather and the miseries they had to endure made many of them suffer from illnesses.

In the 19^th century Britain was engaged in many colonial wars, the purpose of which was to establish its influence in different parts of the world and to ensure the safety of its trade routes. One of them was the so-called Opium Wars against China. As a result, Britain got some territories and opportunity to carry on profitable trade in opium. It was rather a shameful event in the history of England; it didn’t bring the country glory.

Britain’s interest in Africa prompted it to explore the continent. Its first colonies were on the west coast. Then it took over the Cape of Good Hope, because Britain needed a port there on its routes to India. Several explorers were sent to Africa to discover new lands. The most famous of them was David Livingstone, a Scottish doctor. He made some journeys and discovered areas in the Central Africa, unknown to Europeans. His noble Christian missionary to bring civilisation to the people and help them turned out to be political and commercial. The governments in Europe rushed to the “Black Continent” to seize lands and establish their colonies. In no time Africa was divided into “spheres of interests”.

In 1882 Britain invaded Egypt. The official idea was to protect international shipping. As a matter of fact, its own interest came first – it protected the shortest route to India through the newly built Suez Canal.

To expand its territories Britain encouraged settlers to develop colonies in different parts of the world. Lots of people moved to Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The newcomers came across with the locals. In Canada most of the natives were pushed westwards, in Australia British settlers killed the inhabitants or let them live in the central desert areas. In New Zealand the Maory people lost their lands too.

Some years later the white colonies were allowed to govern themselves. Officially they no longer depended on Britain, but still they accepted the British monarch as the head of their state. By the end of the 19^th Britain controlled the oceans and much of the land areas of the world.

In the 19^th century there occurred some improvements in social and economic lives. Public education was given attention to, Education Act was passed in 1891 according to which all children up to the age of 13 had to go to school to get basic knowledge in reading, writing, arithmetic. In the new industrial cities thy started to build redbrick universities. The term redbrick came from the tradition of building new universities of red brick. It distinguished them from the older, stone-built universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Unlike the latter ones these universities taught more science and technology to meet the growing demands of the country’s industry.

By the end of the 19^th century two sports became popular with the British public – cricket and football. Though cricket and football had started in the 18^th century, its rules were organised a hundred years later. They were at first gentlemen’s sports and those of the middle-class’s and then were popular among all walks of life and spread to different parts of the British Empire: to India, Pakistan, Australia and New Zealand.

The 20^th Century

Queen Victoria’s death in 1901 coincided with the beginning of the decline in the power of the Empire. The white settler colonies had always enjoyed considerable self-government and in the first decade Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand were all allowed to draw up their own constitutions to become dominions. The non-white colonies were not so fortunate: India, “the jewel in the Crown” of Victoria’s Empire, was subjected to a harsh military rule, and vast areas of Africa remained firmly under British domination.

Britain was not the only European country with an empire. France, Germany, Belgium, Austria and Hungary were all imperialistic powers. Other countries such as Italy had dreamed of empire. British industry no longer enjoyed the total domination of world markets. By the end of the 19^th century Britain started to lose its commanding positions in the world. The USA and Germany became very strong and powerful. They were producing more steel than Britain, and they had strong industries and navies.

The political situation in Europe was extremely dangerous. The storm clouds of war were gathering in the sky, and the danger of war with Germany was clear from the very beginning of the century. Germany and Austria-Hungary made a military alliance. That made England and France unite to oppose it.

In June 1914 the Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand was killed in Serbia. Immediately Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia, being an ally of Serbia, declared war on Austria-Hungary, which meant a war with Germany. France had to join as it was Russia’s ally.

In August 1914 Germany’s troops crossed the borders and penetrated into the territory of France. The First World War started involving practically the whole of Europe. The war was raging not only in Europe. In the Middle East the British fought against Turkish troops in Iraq, Palestine and in the Dardanelles.

For Britain the war at sea meant much more than on land. Being an island state, Britain had always depended on imported goods. To defeat Britain Germany began sinking merchant submarines which carried supplies to Britain. Thus nearly 40 per cent of commercial ships were sunk during the war. German submarines attacked neutral American ships. That made the USA start military actions against Germany. The arrival of American troops in France put an end to German’s plans, and in 1918 it surrendered.

It was the bloodiest war in history which ended in victory for the Allied Powers of Britain, France, America and Italy, more than 10 million people were killed. For Britain the only positive outcome of the war was that women’s contribution to the war effort were so important that it was impossible to deny them the right to vote in the 1919 elections.

The cost of the war caused great troubles in industries and a big discontent of the workers. Then followed the years of a serious economic crisis known as the Great Depression which shook Europe and America. In the middle of the 1930s British economy began recovering. A big role in this was played by Britain’s growing motor industry. There was another reason for rising the economy. Adolf Hitler came to power and it was evident that he was preparing for a new war to strengthen the position of Germany all over the world. Seeing this the British government got down to rebuilding its industry and armed forces. It started investing large money into heavy industry to produce aircraft, weapons and war equipment, which gave a lot of job opportunities.

The Second World War

After the First World War in Germany the Nazi Party was founded. Its followers spread the ideas that the Germans were a superior race which must rule the world. Having made himself dictator, Hitler oppressed anyone whose religion or race, or political views he didn’t like.

Germany was not the only country ruled by a dictator. Benito Mussolini in Italy was making plans to revive the glory of the Roman Empire. In Japan a military group won commanding position, and were planning to take control over other nations in Asia. In 1930s the three countries formed an alliance called the Axis. To oppose it Britain and France formed the alliance of European countries called the Allies.

Japan was the first to exercise military actions. In 1931 the Japanese invaded a part of China – Manchuria. In 1935 Italy captured a part of Africa. In 1935 Germany seized Austria and a part of Chechoslovakia.

On September 1, 1939 the German army invaded Poland. The Polish government asked Britain and France for help. On September 3, 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany though Britain was ill- prepared for it.. That was the beginning of the Second World War. In the spring of 1940 the Nazi took Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.

When Germany swept through Europe, Britain found itself almost alone and had to resist to the Nazi’s bombing raids with great courage. Only the efforts by the Royal Air Forces prevented Germany from invading Britain. The battle of Britain was the Allies’ first victory. Britain’s new Prime Minister, Sir Winston Churchill, played a great role in keeping up the fighting spirit of the British. He travelled endlessly during the war, establishing close ties with the leaders of other nations and co-ordinated a military strategy. German’s fatal mistake – the invasion of Russia in 1941, together with the intervention of the USA undertaken by Japan, enabled Britain and its allies to stop Germany. The Axis of Germany, Italy and Japan forced onto the battlefield two the most powerful nations in the world. The war cost Britain a quarter of its national wealth..

At the end of the war the victorious Allies created the United Nations Organisation in order to protect peace and democracy and to prevent wars on the planet. The general idea was to settle global problems by discussing within the Organisation. But from the very beginning it faced big difficulties. The idea of the Allies ( Soviet Union, France and Britain) working together for recovery of Europe didn’t work. Europe became divided into two – the eastern part under communist control, and the western part under the control of Britain, France and the USA.

In 1948 the Soviet Union tried to capture West Berlin and blocked all roads to it As a result of the struggle for West Berlin, two opposite alliances were created: the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ( NATO) of the western nations and the Warsaw Pact of the Eastern block.

In the course of years Britain was weakening its international position though it still considered itself to be a world power. In 1956 together with France and Israel, Britain decided to attack Egypt to remain control over the Suez Canal. In the long run, it was forced to withdraw the troops in the face of the world opposition and military assistance of some countries. The events in the Suez showed the world that Britain was no longer a Great Power, and many countries in Asia, Africa and the Arab countries became more determined to challenge Britain’s authority.

After the war the government concentrated on working out reforms aimed at reparing social wrongs in British life. Both the Conservatives and the Labourists agreed on the need to keep up the Welfare State. In 1944 Free secondary education for all was introduced. Two years later everyone was given the right to free medical treatment and financial support for the old, the unemployed and the unable to work through sickness. Britain, like much of post war Europe, was able to recover its industry quickly thanks to the US Marshal Aid Programme. Then there followed a period of economic growth and prosperity in the private sector, above all in the newer industries, particularly car and aircraft production.. Most families could afford a car, a fridge, a television set, and many began to travel during vacations and holidays. The early sixties were a time of great excitement and liberation for the young people. Teenagers had jobs, money in their pockets, and the freedom to spend it. They spent it on clothes and entertainment. Typical for those days was collecting records. The “Swinging Sixties”, as they came to be known, saw an explosion in the world of pop music and the pop groups – the Beatles, the Rolling Stones – became the heroes of young people not just in Britain but all over the world. Their music quickly became internationally known.

The Loss of Empire

After World War 2, with the growth of national liberation movement in the world the countries which were dependent on Great Britain and formed parts of the British empire, began claiming independence. Public opinion changed, and more and more people were beginning to realise that colonial system was a shame for civilised nations. The United Nations Charter in 1945 called for progress towards self-government. The independent movement in colonies was increasing. As a result of this movement, the Empire fell apart.

In 1947 the British left India and Ceylon due to the strong nationalist movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandi.. Together with a number of other former colonies, India and Pakistan were finally granted independence. Between 1945 and 1955 500 million people in former British colonies became self-governing.

However, centuries-long economic, cultural and political ties of these former colonies and dominions were too strong to completely break away from each other, and it was found advisable to maintain the old relations. Britain kept international ties with its colonies through a new organisation called the British Commonwealth of Nations. All the colonies were invited to join the Commonwealth as free and equal members. This system of co-operation has proved to be successful, because it is based on friendship that allows all members to follow their own policies without interference. The British Commonwealth encourages trade and friendship among its members. The Queen is the official head of the Commonwealth.