- •1. Stylistics as a linguistic discipline. The subject-matter of stylistics and its basic notions.
- •2. General scientific background of linguo-stylistics. Information theory and stylistics. The definition of information. Different types of information.
- •3. Information theory and linguistics. The major types of information from a linguo-stylistic prospective.
- •4. The principal model of information transfer. Its constituents.
- •5. The principal model of information transfer. Basic processes involved. Information loss and accumulation.
- •6. Types and kinds of stylistics.
- •7. Basic notions of stylistics: language, speech activity, and speech; syntagmatics and paradigmatics; marked and unmarked members of stylistic opposition.
- •8. Basic notions of stylistics: style, individual style; norm; variant, context.
- •9. Linguistic vs stylistic context, other types of context.
- •10. Em and sd.
- •11. Foregrounding: the evolution of the notion, major types.
- •12. The theory of image. The image structure, types of images.
- •13. Style and meaning. Types of connotations.
- •14. Forms and varieties of language. The notion of received standard.
- •15. Basis for the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary; stylistic and functional style.
- •16. См. 17, 18, 19, 20
- •17. Stylistic potential of neutral words.
- •18. Literary words and their stylistic functions.
- •19. The interrelations between archaic word, historic words, stylistic and lexical neologisms.
- •21. The notions of em and sd on the syntactic level.
- •22. General characteristics of the English syntactical expressive means.
- •23. Syntactical em based on the redundancy of elements of the neutral syntactic model.
- •24. Syntactical em based on the violation of word order of elements of the neutral syntactic model.
- •25. Syntactic sd based on the interaction of several syntactic constructions within the utterance.
- •26. Syntactic sd based on the interaction of forms and types of syntactic connections between words, clauses, sentences.
- •27. Syntactic sd based on the interaction of the syntactic construction meaning with the context.
- •28. General characteristics of the English semasiological means of stylistics.
- •29. Classification of figures of substitution. Em based on the notion of quantity an em based on the notion of quality.
- •30. General characteristics of figures of substitution as expressive means of semasiology.
- •31. General characteristics of figures of combination as stylistic devices of semasiology.
- •32. Figures of quality: general characteristics.
- •33. Figures of quantity: hyperbole, meiosis.
- •49. Major paradigms of literary text interpretation.
- •50. Hermeneutic, logical, psychological perspectives of the literary text interpretation.
- •51. Basic notions of literary text interpretation: textual reference and artistic model of the world. Fictitious time and space.
- •52. Basic notions of the literary text interpretation. Text partitioning and composition. Implication and artistic detail.
- •53. The notion of the author in the narrative text. Internal and external aspects of the author’s textual presence.
- •54. The notion of the point of view. Types of point of view.
- •55. The narrator in the literary text. Types of narrators.
- •56. Approaches to fictional character within the framework of modern text interpretation.
- •57. Major classifications of literary text characters.
- •58. Methods of characterization of the literary text personage.
- •59. Perceptive semantics of the literary text. The notion of “split addressee”. Major criteria for the differentiation of literary text addressees.
- •60. Reader-in-the-text as a literary text construct. Typology of “in-text” readers.
- •61. Linguistic signals of addressee-orientation. Cognitive mechanisms of their formation and functioning, their typology.
15. Basis for the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary; stylistic and functional style.
Two criteria are used for stylistic classification of vocabulary:
- paradigmatic criterion: absence or presence in the word semantics of the additional information (connotation)
- syntagmatic criterion: character of syntagmatic relations between the lexical meaning of the word and its context.
English vocabulary is divided into:
1) words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm which are characterized by :
- an indirect reference to the object
- subjective evaluative connotations
- synonyms and antonyms
2) words having no lexico-stylistic paradigm:
- a direct reference to the object
- absence of subjective evaluative connotations
- strict referential borders
- lack of synonyms and antonyms
16. См. 17, 18, 19, 20
17. Stylistic potential of neutral words.
Neutral words are:
Terms – words and word combinations expressing scientific and scholarly notions. Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science.
Nomenclature words refer to a definite branch of human activity, e.g. names of minerals, chemical elements.
Historical words – denote objects and notions referring to the past.
Exotic words denote notions unknown or rarely met in the given language community.
Lexical neologisms are new words denoting new objects.
Being used in special text, neutral words have no stylistic function. In fiction they are used to create the life-like setting, e.g. of the hospital, laboratory, etc. When incompatible with their context, terms may create satirical or humorous effect.
18. Literary words and their stylistic functions.
Stylistic functions of literary words.
Poetic diction: archaic words, archaic forms, historic words, poetic words proper (brine, anarch)
Poetic words are stylistically marked, they form lexico-stylistic paradigm. Their main function is to mark the text in which they are used as poetic. In modern poetry such words are seldom used.
Archaic words:
- archaic words proper: no longer recognized (troth – faith, losel – worthless)
- archaic forms: corse instead of corpse, an instead of and.
Used to create the effect of antiquity, providing a true-to-life historical background. When incompatible with conversational words, might lead to humorous effect.
Stylistic neologisms are new names that denote already existing objects or notions (ageism).
Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not been entirely assimilated into the English language preserving their former spelling and pronunciation. Most of them have corresponding English synonyms (chic, chagrin, en passant). Used to create local colouring.
Bookish words are used in official and high-flown style. (catenate, depicture, disimprove)
19. The interrelations between archaic word, historic words, stylistic and lexical neologisms.
Stylistic classification of the vocabulary of any language is a very complicated problem. The existing classifications are based on different criteria, which take into account common semantic and stylistic characteristics of words in the given period of time (synchronic approach). The two criteria used for our classification are as follows:
1) paradigmatic criterion, i.e. the absence or presence in the word semantics of the additional information (evaluative, emotive or expressive meaning);
2) syntagmatic criterion, i.e. the character of syntagmatic relations between the lexical or lexical-stylistic meaning of the word and its context.
Both criteria are interconnected. Proceeding from them and using N.D.Arutyunova's ideas of the word semantics, we may divide all words of the English vocabulary into two major groups:
1. words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm which are characterised by:
a) an indirect reference to the object: fat cat (coll.) => a provider of money for political uses (neutral) => denotatum;
b) subjective evaluative connotations;
c) referential borders which are not strict: these words are of a qualifying character so they may be used to characterise different referents; d) synonyms; e) possible antonyms.
To this group we refer poetic diction; archaisms (archaic words); barbarisms and foreign words; stylistic neologisms; slang; colloquialisms; jargonisms (social and professional); dialectal words; vulgarisms.
2 words having no iexico-stylistic paradigm are characterised by:
a) a direct reference to the object;
b) the absence of subjective evaluative connotations;
c) strict referential borders;
d) the lack of synonyms. Synonyms that they may have are purely denotative;
e) the lack of antonyms.
Here we refer stylistically neutral words; terms; nomenclature words; historical words: lexical neologisms; and exotic words.
Words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm are not homogeneous; they may enter the following oppositions:
colloquial vocabulary — bookish vocabulary
non-literary words — literary words
general literary vocabulary — social or dialectal elements special vocabulary-contemporary vocabulary — archaic vocabulary.
However, the mentioned groups of words are not closed; they are intersecting - one and the same word may belong to two or more groups.
?
? Archaisms
historical archaisms” - archaic words denoting historical phenomena no more in use (yeoman, vassal, falconet) - historical words
poetic words (steed for horse, woe for sorrow)
? “material archaisms” – archaic words proper (ousted by newer synonymic words or forms): to deem - to think; nay - no; brethren - brothers; thou wilt - you will
? Archaic words.
? Archaic words, i.e. out-dated words that denote existing objects, are divided into two groups:
? a) archaic words proper: words which are no longer recognised in modern English. They
? were used in Old English and have either dropped out of language use entirely or completely changed (troth - faith, losel - worthless);
? b) archaic forms of the words: corse instead of corpse, an instead of and, annoy instead
? of annoyance.
? Speaking of archaic words we should distinguish "ageing/newness" of the word form and "ageing/newness" of the denotatum. And then, accordingly, we may correlate archaic words and historic words on the one hand as well as lexical and stylistic neologisms on the other.
Lexical neologisms are new words that denote new objects (laser, shopping, pop promo, killer, satellite). Stylistic neologisms are new names that denote already existing objects and notions (mole - a spy who successfully infiltrates an organisation; ageism - discrimination of a person on the ground of age).
? Historical words are associated with definite stages in the development of a society and cannot be neglected, though the things and phenomena to which they refer no longer exist. Historical words (yeoman, thane, baldric, goblet) have no synonyms as compared to archaic words which may be replaced by their modern synonyms.
? Historical words and lexical neologisms having no stylistic meaning, do not form lexico-stylistic paradigms. But archaic words and stylistic neologisms mark the text stylistically, distinguishing it from neutral speech.
? In fiction, together with historical words, archaisms create the effect of antiquity, providing a true-to-life historical background and reminding the reader of past habits, customs, clothes etc. The usage of archaisms, incompatible with conversational words, might in some cases lead to a humorous or satirical effect.
? Barbarisms and foreign words.
? There are many borrowings in every language, some of them being assimilated. We may distinguish four groups of such words in English: foreign words, barbarisms, exotic words, and borrowings.
? Foreign words are close to barbarisms, but they are characterised by occasional usage only, mainly in literary speech. They do not form a lexico-stylistic paradigm, though they may be used to create some stylistic effect.
? Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not been entirely assimilated into the English language preserving their former spelling and pronunciation. Most of them (e.g. chic, chagrin, en passant) have corresponding English synonyms.
? Exotic words are borrowed foreign words denoting objects characteristic of a certain country (canzonet, matador). They have no synonyms in the language-borrower, do not form a lexico-stylistic paradigm and therefore are not considered to be lexical EM, but nevertheless they may be used for stylistic purposes.
? Borrowings, if they are assimilated, do not differ much from native words as far as their stylistic aspect is concerned. They are usually high-flown synonyms of neutral native words (to commence — to begin, labour- work, female - woman).
? The stylistic functions of barbarisms and foreign words are similar, they are used to create a local colouring, to identify a personage as a foreigner, or to show his/her mannerism.
? Bookish (learned) words are mostly used in official or high-flown style (catenate, depicture, disimprove, dalliance). In official usage, they mark the text as belonging to this or that style of written speech, but when used in colloquial speech or in informal situations, they may create a comical effect.
- 20. Conversational words and their classification. Their stylistic functions.
Conversational words of all kinds are widely used for stylistic purposes. There are four speech spheres in which they are mostly largely used: everyday speech, newspaper language, poetry, and fiction.
In newspaper language, colloquial words and word combinations, and sometimes general slang words, are used to give an expressive evaluation of facts and events. In modern poetry, words of all layers are most widely used. Lyrical poetry allows the usage of various non-poetic words to create the atmosphere of sincerity, confidence etc. Slang words in fiction (mostly in dialogues) add to the informality and emotiveness of the character's speech alongside with indicating social and speech peculiarities of the personages.