29. Classification of figures of substitution. Em based on the notion of quantity an em based on the notion of quality.

F. of subst: Figures of Quantity :hyperbole- is a deliberate exaggeration which is aimed at intensification one of the features of an object to such extent that will show its absurdity., meiosis-is the figure of speech, contrary to hyperbole, consists in lessening, reducing the real quantity of the object of speech , litotes-is a rhetorical diminishing which includes the negative particles “no, not” before a word with a negative meaning (such a word may possess a negative prefix). /)Figures of Quality:metaphorical group:metaphor-asecondary nomination unit based on likeness; similarity- , antonomasia-the use of the name of a historical, mythological, or biblical personage applied to a person whose characteristic features resemble those ,personification-is attributing human properties to lifeless objects; allegory-means expressing abstract ideas through concrete pictures, epithet- is based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase, sentence, used to characterize an object. metonymical group: metonymy-based on the real association of the object of nomination, synecdoche-the transfer is based on the ass. between a part and a whole, periphrasis, euphemism- used to replace an unpleasant word, irony-is based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual, but two meanings stand in opposition to each other.

30. General characteristics of figures of substitution as expressive means of semasiology.

Semasiological EM are figures of substitution = different means of secondary nomination (based on the usage of existing words and word combinations to denote new notions or to give a new name to the already known objects).

31. General characteristics of figures of combination as stylistic devices of semasiology.

Semasiological SD are figures of combination = stylistically relevant semantic means of combining lexical, syntactical and other units (including EM) belonging to the same or different language units.

32. Figures of quality: general characteristics.

Tropes and figures of speech based on comparison of features and qualities of 2 objects belonging to dif. Areas or classes, which are perceived as having a common feature. +29

33. Figures of quantity: hyperbole, meiosis.

hyperbole- is a deliberate exaggeration which is aimed at intensification one of the features of an object to such extent that will show its absurdity.Mainly used to intensify physical qualities of objects or people(Her family is one aunt about a th. Years old).May show the overflow of emotions. Meiosis-is the figure of speech, contrary to hyperbole, consists in lessening, reducing the real quantity of the object of speech. Mainly used in oral speech where it usually emphasizes the insignificance of an object.(She wore a pink hat the size of a button)

34. Figures of equivalence: simile-is a stylistic device based on partial identification of two unlike objects. Stucture: tenor, vehicle, ground for comparison.Comparison markers: conjunctions and prepositions(like,as),verbs(seem,like), nouns(a sort of,some kind of)adjectives(the same as, similar to). Types: based on analogy, on a parable, based on contrast. Substituting - synonyms – substitutes (‘replacers’) are words used to denote object or thing, supplementing new additional details(to be so trembly and shaky from head to foot.)Specifying synonyms -Synonyms-specifires clarifying synonyms) – a chain of words which express similar meaning.(Joe was a mild, good-natured, sweet-tempered, easy-going, foolish dear fellow)

35. Figures of non-equivalence: based on actualization the emotional power of the utterance :climax- consists in arranging the utterance so that each consequent component of it increases significance, importance or emotional tension of narration , anticlimax- consists in arranging the utterance so that each subsequent component of it decreases significance, importance or emotional tension of narration. (Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested);based on two different meanings of words and word-combinations: pun- is a device based on polysemy, homonymy, or phonetic similarity to achieve a humorous effect(Money doesn't grow on the trees. But it blossoms at our branches), zeugma- parallel constructions with unparallel meanings(At noon Mrs. Turpin would get out of bed and humor).

36. Metaphorical group. Mechanism of metaphoric transfer of name. Types of metaphor. / Metaphorical group:metaphor-asecondary nomination unit based on likeness; similarity- , antonomasia-the use of the name of a historical, mythological, or biblical personage applied to a person whose characteristic features resemble those ,personification-is attributing human properties to lifeless objects; allegory-means expressing abstract ideas through concrete pictures, epithet- is based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase, sentence, used to characterize an object. Structural types of metaphor: simple (elementary)(But nothing happened. He was stalemated; and he was burning up with marble fever);Prolonged. Semantic types of m.: Trite (, dead) (flight of fancy; floods of tears, generation of efforts, to fly into passion).Genuine ( Through the open window the dust danced and was golden.)

37. Metonymical group. Syntactic and semantic difference between metonymy and metaphor. Metonymical group: metonymy-based on the real association of the object of nomination(There are a lot of good heads in the university), synecdoche-the transfer is based on the ass. between a part and a whole, periphrasis(He’s got five mouths to feed), euphemism- used to replace an unpleasant word(merry (drunk); to possess a vivid imagination (to lie).Metonymy is more often found in subject and object groups, while metaphor is commonly found in predicate groups. When metaphor is used as a subject, it takes on an anaphoric pronoun(He is a bear. A bear broke the vase.)Metaphor is based on similarity, metonymy on contiguity(сходство, близость)

38. Figures of opposition: antithesis- denotes any active confrontation, emphasized co-occurrence of notions, really or presumably contrastive (it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness), oxymoron-a combination of words with contrasting meanings which results in the creation of a new notion(the lowest skyscrapers, a damned saint, a plain beauty).

39. Irony. Context types of irony.

Irony is the use of a word having a positive meaning to express a negative one. It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.

In contrast with metaphor and metonymy, irony does not employ any particular syntactical structure or lexical units. In context, there are usually some formal markers of irony pointing out the meaning implied.

In oral speech, a word used ironically is strongly marked by intonation and other paralinguistic means. In written speech, such markers are not easily found.

Language irony comprises words, word-combinations and utterances which, due to regular usage, have acquired connotative ironical meaning which does not depend on context, e.g. a speechmaker, too clever by half.

More often, however, words or word-combinations acquire ironical meaning due to particular syntagmatic relations between the meaning of different speech units in macrocontext (a fragment of a text) or megacontext (the whole text), e.g. An Ideal Husband, A Devoted Friend. The ironical meaning appears, when lexical units expressing positive evaluation in a certain context acquire a negative meaning, e.g. This naturally led to some pleasant chat about…fevers, chills, lung deseases…and bronchitis.

40.  The problem of functional style in English.

Stylistics regards a language as a certain functional system.

English is represented by functional and non-functional variants of language.

Function is defined either as a relation of one element to another or as a role (‘призначення’) of an element in a system as well a role of the whole system in wider environment.

• As in modern linguistics 3 areas of language are distinguished, namely, language system (langue), speech activity (performance) and speech material/ speech (parole), the notion of function has certain peculiarities applied to each of these areas.

• Understanding of style is different too as applied to language, speech activity and speech. Accordingly, three types of stylistics may be distinguished: stylistics of language, stylistics of activity, stylistics of speech.

The notion of functional style is interpreted in stylistics differently. There are 2 main approaches to its definition, both originating from Ac. V.V.Vinogradov’s conception. According to the first approach, style is defined on the criterion of function as a socially accepted, functionally conditioned and internally organized system of the ways of usage, choice and combination of communicative verbal means which correlate with other similar systems serving other aims and fulfilling other functions in speech practice of a nation. According to the second approach, style is defined with regard to its components. It is regarded as a system of language means united by the similarity of their function or by sphere of usage.

• Prof. Arnold I. V. – FSs are subsystems of language which possess their specific peculiarities in vocabulary, phraseology, syntactical constructions and sometimes phonetics.

• Prof. Galperin I. R. – FS of language is a system of interrelated language means which serve a definite aim in communication. A FS is thus to be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message.

• Prof. Screbnev Y. M. considers that FSs are descriptive features of subsystems of language which serve different spheres of communication. FS is construed with the help of specific constituents of these or those sublanguages.

41. Functional and non-functional variants of the English language.

English is represented by functional and non-functional variants of language. Non-functional variants of English are conditioned not by pragmatic aims or role relations of speakers but exceptionally by the sphere of the language use:

• territorial (local dialects – London Cockney, the Southern dialect in the USA);

• social and professional (social and professional jargons – teenagers’ / students’ jargon, jargon of sportsmen / criminals / drug addicts, etc.

Functional variants of English or FSs are conditioned by pragmatic aims and social relations of speakers.

• Aim is a conceivable desirable practical result of human activity. There are two types of hierarchically related aims: the main aim and the supplementary (intermediate) one.

• The main aim of verbal communication is of pragmatic (nonlingual) character. It presupposes not just conveying information but achieving some pragmatic aim (aim in a concrete speech situation).

• The supplementary aim is of constructive (lingual) character. It presupposes creating and applying definite means to achieve the main aim.

Non-functional aspects of speech

• territorial

• social

• professional

(dialects and jargons)

Functional aspects of speech

• are determined by functions (roles) linguistic units play in speech;

• make up functional styles;

• One and the same thought can be rendered by different linguistic means.

Functional types of language constitute the basis for the stylistic differentiation of speech activity and speech which serve the ground for defining functional style.

42. The notion of functional style.

The notion of functional style is interpreted in stylistics differently. There are 2 main approaches to its definition, both originating from Ac. V.V.Vinogradov’s conception. According to the first approach, style is defined on the criterion of function as a socially accepted, functionally conditioned and internally organized system of the ways of usage, choice and combination of communicative verbal means which correlate with other similar systems serving other aims and fulfilling other functions in speech practice of a nation. According to the second approach, style is defined with regard to its components. It is regarded as a system of language means united by the similarity of their function or by sphere of usage.

• Prof. Arnold I. V. – FSs are subsystems of language which possess their specific peculiarities in vocabulary, phraseology, syntactical constructions and sometimes phonetics.

• Prof. Galperin I. R. – FS of language is a system of interrelated language means which serve a definite aim in communication. A FS is thus to be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message.

• Prof. Screbnev Y. M. considers that FSs are descriptive features of subsystems of language which serve different spheres of communication. FS is construed with the help of specific constituents of these or those sublanguages.

Quite different interpretation of FS was suggested by Prof. Morokhovsky O. M. and his followers who regarded FS as the property of stylistics of speech activity.

• The speech functional style is defined as a socially accepted stereotype of speech behaviour conditioned by social situation of communication (formal or informal), social roles of communicants (equal or unequal; a parent and a child, a teacher and a student, a scientist, a journalist and the audience) and their pragmatic aims.

43. Deductive classification of functional style.

The deductive approach is based on the classification criteria which are regarded as given but not directly extracted from the speech material. According to this approach functional styles are classified on the basis of the language function, the sphere of usage and the set of differential signs.

The functional style classification on the basis of the language function

Sticking to this classification, the linguists recognize not only two basic language functions (communicative and cognitive) but also additional / specific ones.

• A. M. Peshkovskiy’s classification

• belles-lettres style the purpose of which is to influence the readers’ imagination to evoke aesthetic feelings;

• oratorical style and the style of advertisement the purpose of which is to influence the recipients’ wills;

• the style of lecture speech aimed at popularization of some ideas and making them easy for understanding.

Ac. Vinogradov V. V. singled out 3 language functions – communication, informing and influence. Thus, the function of communication is realized in colloquial style, of informing – in official-documentary style and of influence – in belles-lettres and publicistic styles.

The functional style classification on the basis of the sphere of language use

There was an attempt to classify functional styles in accordance with all possible spheres of their usage – social and speech situations of human communication. As the number of such situations is extremely large, they were generalized and typified. So firstly, two historically formed spheres of communication were singled out: oral and written and correspondingly colloquial and bookish speeches were distinguished. Then the styles of oral and written communication were classified further (written – into scientific and belles-lettres styles; colloquial – into literary-conversational and familiar-colloquial).

The functional style classification on the basis of three differential features

• Emotionality/ non-emotionality -> belle-letters and Publicistic styles/ official, scientific styles

• Spontaneity/ non-spontaneity -> styles of oral/ written types of speech

• Norm adherence/ lack of norm adherence -> literary colloquial/ conversational

• and combinations of the enumerated features

44. Inductive classification of functional style.

The criteria for classification according to the inductive approach are not given but they are extracted from a certain speech material. The procedure is the following: the researcher having a certain number of utterances and texts classifies them into groups on the basis of lexical, syntactical and other parameters of resemblance. Thus, each group of texts will represent a certain functional style.

• Irrespective of the approaches adopted, scholars usually distinguish the following styles: conversational, official or documentary, scientific, publicistic and oratorical, newspaper style, and belles-lettres style.

• The status of belles-lettres style, newspaper style and conversational style is still controversial.

Belles-lettres style – following the differentiation of the primary and secondary semiotic systems it is possible to assume that the poetic language and the language of fiction does not constitute a functional style comparable with other functional styles but it constitutes a specific type of language.

The status of newspaper style is also doubtful. Some scholars consider that the existence of this style is conditioned by the specific aims of mass media and by the peculiarities of the linguistic means used in newspaper. But these peculiarities manifest themselves only in limited newspaper units – headlines, brief news (briefings) and editorials. Thus, it is more reasonable to speak about the newspaper language rather than about the newspaper style.

Prof. Galperin I. R. excluded conversational style from the inventory of FSs, because his classification was based on entirely the written type of language. Though conversational style in Modern English is used even more widely than written language and is not homogeneous at all.

Generally, the following functional styles can be distinguished: official style, scientific style, publicistic style, literary conversational style, colloquial style.

• Functional styles are represented by different types of utterances and texts. These are different classes of texts within a FS which differ in their semantic and topical characteristics. Thus the texts of publicistic style may be subdivided into texts on politics, economics, moral, art, religion, health, etc.

• Each type of the texts is realized in a certain genre of the text. These are types of the text subdivided according to their compositional and stylistic peculiarities. The military texts for instance are divided into orders, reports, instructions and regulations.

• Each of the enumerated styles is exercised in two forms — written and oral: an article and a lecture are examples of the two forms of the scientific style, an essay and a public speech — of the publicistic style, etc.

45. The style of official documents in Modern English.

Official style is devoid of expressiveness, emotiveness and subjective modality (except business correspondence where conventional phrases of greeting or close are to be found such as Dear Sir, For the attention of Mr. E. Wilson, Sincerely T. W. Thomas, Chairman, Yours faithfully). This style is the most conservative one. It preserves cast-iron forms of structuring and uses syntactical constructions and words long known as archaic and not observed anywhere else.

Its special language forms are rather peculiar:

• The graphical level of this style is distinguished by specific rules of making inscriptions, using capital letters and abbreviations.

• E. g. A/C, acc. (account current) – поточний рахунок, adsd (addressed) – адресовано, B/E, b.e. (bill of exchange) – переводний вексель, трата, Co. (company), CV (curriculum vitae) – коротка біографія, LOC (letter of commitment) – гарантійний лист, IOY (I owe you) – боргова розписка, urgt (urgent) – терміновий , etc.

• The lexical level is characterized by domination of bookish, borrowed, archaic and obsolescent words, terms and clichés, such as “aviso” (авізо), “interest-free” (безвідсотковий), “fidejussor” (поручитель), “flagrante delicto” (на місті злочину), “status quo”; In reply to your letter, We are pleased to enclose our order…, We are sorry to inform that our client became insolvent.

• The morphological features of the style: the usage of Subjunctive I (It is urgent you confirm the arrival of the delegation ) and the Suppositional Mood (It is requested that you should confirm your order), wide use of non-finite forms of the verb, impersonal and indefinite pronouns.

• The syntactical level is distinguished by long and super-long sentences of all structural types, always two-member and no elliptical, complicated by complexes of secondary predication, detachments (відокремлені конструкції), parenthetic insertions and passive constructions.

46. The publicistic style and oratorical style in Modern English.

Publicistic style

• Is mainly based on the practical language, being personal;

• May widely employ elements of the poetic language;

• Lexical peculiarities: the use of newspaper clichés, neologisms, abbreviations;

• Syntactical peculiarities: the use of complex sentences and the use of attributive noun groups.

Publicistic style – is mainly based on the practical language, being personal. It may widely employ elements of the poetic language. The aim is to influence public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one, and to cause him to accept the point of view … not merely by logical argumentation, but by emotional appeal as well (brain-washing function).

• Publicistic style is characterized by combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal (we find in the publicistic style a blend of the rigorous logical reasoning, reflecting the objective state of things and a strong subjectivity reflecting the author’s personal feelings and emotions towards the discussed subject).

• This style falls into the following variants:

the oratorical style (speeches, lectures and reports; radio and TV programs; the essential feature of oratorical style is the direct contact with listeners);

the style of essays (moral, philosophical, literary; book review in magazines, pamphlets; essay is a literary composition of moderate length on … subjects. It goes deep into the subject but merely touches upon the surface, a series of personal and witty comments);

journalistic articles (political, economic, social).

In oral speeches, to establish and maintain the direct contact, the speaker continuously resorts to various language means of address: ladies and gentlemen, honourable guests, dear colleagues, dear friends, любі друзі, шановні брати і сестри, співвітчизники.

• Public speeches, radio and TV commentaries are crammed with syntactic stylistic devices of repetition (ordinary, synonymic, anaphoric, epiphoric, framing, linking), parallelisms and polysyndeton. These devices aim at making information persuasive.

• E.g. 1. This is the price and the promise of citizenship. This is the source of our confidence - the knowledge that God calls on us to shape an uncertain destiny. This is the meaning of our liberty and our creed (Parallelisms).

• The choice of language means in journalistic articles depends on the subject described (political, social, ethical, religious, cultural, etc.).

• The use of expressive means and stylistic devices is quite frequent (The collapse of the 3.7-meter-tall monster in Berlin on Nov. 9, 1989), but a kind of paradox happens – newly coined words, expressions, phrases aimed at creating emotional resonance, soon lose this expressiveness, turning into a cliché (a stock phrase). E. g. freedom fighters, the Iron Curtain, ladies in green, brain drain

• Individual element is possible but generally toned down and limited.

• Brevity of expression (sometimes epigrammatic) is a leading feature.

• In journalistic articles the principle of a turned upside down pyramid is observed. It means that the most important information is given in the title complex and the lead.

47. The style of scientific prose.

Scientific style

• Is mainly based on the practical languages, being mostly impersonal

• Includes a metaphoric language

• Compositionally every scientific text includes three parts ( the introduction, main body, conclusion)

• Lexical peculiarities: the use of terms, neutral words;

• Syntactical level: complex sentences; a developed system of connectives.

The style of scientific prose has 3 subdivisions:1) the style of humanitarian sciences; 2) the style of "exact" sciences; 3) the style of popular scientific prose. Its function is to work out and ground theoretically objective knowledge about reality. The aim of communication is to create new concepts, disclose the international laws of existence. The peculiarities are: objectiveness; logical coherence, impersonality, unemotional character, exactness. The scientific prose style consists mostly of ordinary words which tend to be used in their primary logical meaning. Emotiveness depends on the subject of investigation but mostly scientific prose style is unemotional. Grammar: The logical presentation and cohesion of thought manifests itself in a developed feature of scientific syntax is the use of established patterns. - postulatory; - formulative; - argumentative; The impersonal and objective character of scientific prose style is revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions, impersonal sentences. Personal sentences are more frequently used in exact sciences. In humanities we may come across constructions but few. Some features of the style in the text are: - use of quotations and references; - use of foot-notes helps to preserve the logical coherence of ideas. Scientific popular style has the following peculiarities: emotive words, elements of colloquial style.

48. Text interpretation as a linguistic discipline: subject-matter, aims and tasks.

Interpretation (Lat. “explication”) is an act, process, or result of interpreting, i.e. explaining the meaning and elucidating the sense, which is often multifaceted.

• The object of TI is any speech utterances and texts – literary, scientific, and journalistic.

• The subject matter of TI is usually defined as textual meaning, textual content, and textual sense.

According to O.M.Morokhovsky, text interpretation should be viewed as a methodology, a set of techniques serving the needs of various philological disciplines, aimed at deriving textual sense or senses, on the one hand and as a process and result of applying these methods and techniques.

Gadamer’s 2 basic assumptions of interpretation:

1) interpretation is, principally, open and infinite;

2) text comprehension is inseparable from the interpreter's self-understanding.