- •Hematuria II: causes and investigation
- •Hematospermia
- •Lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS)
- •Nocturia and nocturnal polyuria
- •Flank pain
- •Urinary incontinence in adults
- •Genital symptoms
- •Abdominal examination in urological disease
- •Digital rectal examination (DRE)
- •Lumps in the groin
- •Lumps in the scrotum
- •2 Urological investigations
- •Urine examination
- •Urine cytology
- •Radiological imaging of the urinary tract
- •Uses of plain abdominal radiography (KUB X-ray—kidneys, ureters, bladder)
- •Intravenous pyelography (IVP)
- •Other urological contrast studies
- •Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
- •Radioisotope imaging
- •Post-void residual urine volume measurement
- •3 Bladder outlet obstruction
- •Regulation of prostate growth and development of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)
- •Pathophysiology and causes of bladder outlet obstruction (BOO) and BPH
- •Benign prostatic obstruction (BPO): symptoms and signs
- •Diagnostic tests in men with LUTS thought to be due to BPH
- •Why do men seek treatment for their symptoms?
- •Watchful waiting for uncomplicated BPH
- •Medical management of BPH: combination therapy
- •Medical management of BPH: alternative drug therapy
- •Minimally invasive management of BPH: surgical alternatives to TURP
- •Invasive surgical alternatives to TURP
- •TURP and open prostatectomy
- •Indications for and technique of urethral catheterization
- •Indications for and technique of suprapubic catheterization
- •Management of nocturia and nocturnal polyuria
- •High-pressure chronic retention (HPCR)
- •Bladder outlet obstruction and retention in women
- •Urethral stricture disease
- •4 Incontinence
- •Causes and pathophysiology
- •Evaluation
- •Treatment of sphincter weakness incontinence: injection therapy
- •Treatment of sphincter weakness incontinence: retropubic suspension
- •Treatment of sphincter weakness incontinence: pubovaginal slings
- •Overactive bladder: conventional treatment
- •Overactive bladder: options for failed conventional therapy
- •“Mixed” incontinence
- •Post-prostatectomy incontinence
- •Incontinence in the elderly patient
- •Urinary tract infection: microbiology
- •Lower urinary tract infection
- •Recurrent urinary tract infection
- •Urinary tract infection: treatment
- •Acute pyelonephritis
- •Pyonephrosis and perinephric abscess
- •Other forms of pyelonephritis
- •Chronic pyelonephritis
- •Septicemia and urosepsis
- •Fournier gangrene
- •Epididymitis and orchitis
- •Periurethral abscess
- •Prostatitis: presentation, evaluation, and treatment
- •Other prostate infections
- •Interstitial cystitis
- •Tuberculosis
- •Parasitic infections
- •HIV in urological surgery
- •6 Urological neoplasia
- •Pathology and molecular biology
- •Prostate cancer: epidemiology and etiology
- •Prostate cancer: incidence, prevalence, and mortality
- •Prostate cancer pathology: premalignant lesions
- •Counseling before prostate cancer screening
- •Prostate cancer: clinical presentation
- •PSA and prostate cancer
- •PSA derivatives: free-to-total ratio, density, and velocity
- •Prostate cancer: transrectal ultrasonography and biopsies
- •Prostate cancer staging
- •Prostate cancer grading
- •General principles of management of localized prostate cancer
- •Management of localized prostate cancer: watchful waiting and active surveillance
- •Management of localized prostate cancer: radical prostatectomy
- •Postoperative course after radical prostatectomy
- •Prostate cancer control with radical prostatectomy
- •Management of localized prostate cancer: radical external beam radiotherapy (EBRT)
- •Management of localized prostate cancer: brachytherapy (BT)
- •Management of localized and radiorecurrent prostate cancer: cryotherapy and HIFU
- •Management of locally advanced nonmetastatic prostate cancer (T3–4 N0M0)
- •Management of advanced prostate cancer: hormone therapy I
- •Management of advanced prostate cancer: hormone therapy II
- •Management of advanced prostate cancer: hormone therapy III
- •Management of advanced prostate cancer: androgen-independent/ castration-resistant disease
- •Palliative management of prostate cancer
- •Prostate cancer: prevention; complementary and alternative therapies
- •Bladder cancer: epidemiology and etiology
- •Bladder cancer: pathology and staging
- •Bladder cancer: presentation
- •Bladder cancer: diagnosis and staging
- •Muscle-invasive bladder cancer: surgical management of localized (pT2/3a) disease
- •Muscle-invasive bladder cancer: radical and palliative radiotherapy
- •Muscle-invasive bladder cancer: management of locally advanced and metastatic disease
- •Bladder cancer: urinary diversion after cystectomy
- •Transitional cell carcinoma (UC) of the renal pelvis and ureter
- •Radiological assessment of renal masses
- •Benign renal masses
- •Renal cell carcinoma: epidemiology and etiology
- •Renal cell carcinoma: pathology, staging, and prognosis
- •Renal cell carcinoma: presentation and investigations
- •Renal cell carcinoma: active surveillance
- •Renal cell carcinoma: surgical treatment I
- •Renal cell carcinoma: surgical treatment II
- •Renal cell carcinoma: management of metastatic disease
- •Testicular cancer: epidemiology and etiology
- •Testicular cancer: clinical presentation
- •Testicular cancer: serum markers
- •Testicular cancer: pathology and staging
- •Testicular cancer: prognostic staging system for metastatic germ cell cancer
- •Testicular cancer: management of non-seminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCT)
- •Testicular cancer: management of seminoma, IGCN, and lymphoma
- •Penile neoplasia: benign, viral-related, and premalignant lesions
- •Penile cancer: epidemiology, risk factors, and pathology
- •Squamous cell carcinoma of the penis: clinical management
- •Carcinoma of the scrotum
- •Tumors of the testicular adnexa
- •Urethral cancer
- •Wilms tumor and neuroblastoma
- •7 Miscellaneous urological diseases of the kidney
- •Cystic renal disease: simple cysts
- •Cystic renal disease: calyceal diverticulum
- •Cystic renal disease: medullary sponge kidney (MSK)
- •Acquired renal cystic disease (ARCD)
- •Autosomal dominant (adult) polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD)
- •Ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) obstruction in adults
- •Anomalies of renal ascent and fusion: horseshoe kidney, pelvic kidney, malrotation
- •Renal duplications
- •8 Stone disease
- •Kidney stones: epidemiology
- •Kidney stones: types and predisposing factors
- •Kidney stones: mechanisms of formation
- •Evaluation of the stone former
- •Kidney stones: presentation and diagnosis
- •Kidney stone treatment options: watchful waiting
- •Stone fragmentation techniques: extracorporeal lithotripsy (ESWL)
- •Intracorporeal techniques of stone fragmentation (fragmentation within the body)
- •Kidney stone treatment: percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL)
- •Kidney stones: open stone surgery
- •Kidney stones: medical therapy (dissolution therapy)
- •Ureteric stones: presentation
- •Ureteric stones: diagnostic radiological imaging
- •Ureteric stones: acute management
- •Ureteric stones: indications for intervention to relieve obstruction and/or remove the stone
- •Ureteric stone treatment
- •Treatment options for ureteric stones
- •Prevention of calcium oxalate stone formation
- •Bladder stones
- •Management of ureteric stones in pregnancy
- •Hydronephrosis
- •Management of ureteric strictures (other than UPJ obstruction)
- •Pathophysiology of urinary tract obstruction
- •Ureter innervation
- •10 Trauma to the urinary tract and other urological emergencies
- •Renal trauma: clinical and radiological assessment
- •Renal trauma: treatment
- •Ureteral injuries: mechanisms and diagnosis
- •Ureteral injuries: management
- •Bladder and urethral injuries associated with pelvic fractures
- •Bladder injuries
- •Posterior urethral injuries in males and urethral injuries in females
- •Anterior urethral injuries
- •Testicular injuries
- •Penile injuries
- •Torsion of the testis and testicular appendages
- •Paraphimosis
- •Malignant ureteral obstruction
- •Spinal cord and cauda equina compression
- •11 Infertility
- •Male reproductive physiology
- •Etiology and evaluation of male infertility
- •Lab investigation of male infertility
- •Oligospermia and azoospermia
- •Varicocele
- •Treatment options for male factor infertility
- •12 Disorders of erectile function, ejaculation, and seminal vesicles
- •Physiology of erection and ejaculation
- •Impotence: evaluation
- •Impotence: treatment
- •Retrograde ejaculation
- •Peyronie’s disease
- •Priapism
- •13 Neuropathic bladder
- •Innervation of the lower urinary tract (LUT)
- •Physiology of urine storage and micturition
- •Bladder and sphincter behavior in the patient with neurological disease
- •The neuropathic lower urinary tract: clinical consequences of storage and emptying problems
- •Bladder management techniques for the neuropathic patient
- •Catheters and sheaths and the neuropathic patient
- •Management of incontinence in the neuropathic patient
- •Management of recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs) in the neuropathic patient
- •Management of hydronephrosis in the neuropathic patient
- •Bladder dysfunction in multiple sclerosis, in Parkinson disease, after stroke, and in other neurological disease
- •Neuromodulation in lower urinary tract dysfunction
- •14 Urological problems in pregnancy
- •Physiological and anatomical changes in the urinary tract
- •Urinary tract infection (UTI)
- •Hydronephrosis
- •15 Pediatric urology
- •Embryology: urinary tract
- •Undescended testes
- •Urinary tract infection (UTI)
- •Ectopic ureter
- •Ureterocele
- •Ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) obstruction
- •Hypospadias
- •Normal sexual differentiation
- •Abnormal sexual differentiation
- •Cystic kidney disease
- •Exstrophy
- •Epispadias
- •Posterior urethral valves
- •Non-neurogenic voiding dysfunction
- •Nocturnal enuresis
- •16 Urological surgery and equipment
- •Preparation of the patient for urological surgery
- •Antibiotic prophylaxis in urological surgery
- •Complications of surgery in general: DVT and PE
- •Fluid balance and management of shock in the surgical patient
- •Patient safety in the operating room
- •Transurethral resection (TUR) syndrome
- •Catheters and drains in urological surgery
- •Guide wires
- •JJ stents
- •Lasers in urological surgery
- •Diathermy
- •Sterilization of urological equipment
- •Telescopes and light sources in urological endoscopy
- •Consent: general principles
- •Cystoscopy
- •Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP)
- •Transurethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT)
- •Optical urethrotomy
- •Circumcision
- •Hydrocele and epididymal cyst removal
- •Nesbit procedure
- •Vasectomy and vasovasostomy
- •Orchiectomy
- •Urological incisions
- •JJ stent insertion
- •Nephrectomy and nephroureterectomy
- •Radical prostatectomy
- •Radical cystectomy
- •Ileal conduit
- •Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL)
- •Ureteroscopes and ureteroscopy
- •Pyeloplasty
- •Laparoscopic surgery
- •Endoscopic cystolitholapaxy and (open) cystolithotomy
- •Scrotal exploration for torsion and orchiopexy
- •17 Basic science of relevance to urological practice
- •Physiology of bladder and urethra
- •Renal anatomy: renal blood flow and renal function
- •Renal physiology: regulation of water balance
- •Renal physiology: regulation of sodium and potassium excretion
- •Renal physiology: acid–base balance
- •18 Urological eponyms
- •Index
274 CHAPTER 6 Urological neoplasia
Radiological assessment of renal masses
Abdominal ultrasound
This is considered by many to be the first-line investigation for a patient with flank pain or a suspected renal mass. The size resolution for renal masses is 1.5 cm, exhibiting variable echo patterns.
Ultrasound may also detect renal cysts, most of which are simple: smooth-walled, round or oval, without internal echoes and complete transmission with a strong acoustic shadow posteriorly. If the cyst has a solid intracystic element, septations, or an irregular or calcified wall, further imaging with CT is indicated.
CT scan
If a renal mass is detected, a thin-slice CT scan before and after contrast is the most important investigation. In general, any solid-enhancing renal mass is considered a renal carcinoma until proven otherwise. Even relatively avascular renal carcinomas enhance by 10–25 Hounsfield units.1
Occasionally, an isodense but enhancing area of kidney is demonstrated (“pseudotumor”) and may correspond to a harmless hypertrophied cortical column (of Bertin) or a dysmorphic renal segment. CT may mislead with respect to liver invasion (rare) because of “partial volume effect”; real-time ultrasound is more accurate. Lymphadenopathy >2 cm is highly indicative of metastases, but occasionally can be inflammatory or due to another process such as lymphoma.
Bosniak developed a radiological classification of renal cysts (Table 6.11).2 The classification is based on homogeneity and complexity of cystic fluid, presence or absence of septations, calcifications, or solid components; and the density of cystic fluid is determined by Hounsfield units. Hounsfield units are a measure of X-ray attenuation applied to CT scanning: –1000 units equate with air, 0 units equate with water, and +1000 equate with bone.
MRI with gadolinium contrast may be used for imaging the inferior vena cava or renal vein (MRV), locally advanced disease, or renal insufficiency, or for patients allergic to iodinated contrast. Renal arteriography is seldom used in the diagnostic setting but may be helpful to delineate the number and position of renal arteries in preparation for nephron-sparing surgery or surgery for horseshoe kidneys.
Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) is a scleroderma-like skin disease that affects patients with renal insufficiency. There is a strong association with the development of NSF and exposure to gadolinium contrast agents used in performing MRI. Therefore, in patients with GFRs <30 mL/ min/1.73 m2, these agents should not be used.
Fine needle aspiration/needle biopsy
Ultrasound or CT-guided fine needle aspiration (FNA) or needle biopsy in the investigation of renal masses is of limited value because of the better accuracy of modern cross-sectional imaging, false-negative biopsy results
1 Barbaric ZL. (1994). Principles of Genitourinary Radiology. 2nd Edn. Thieme Medical Publishers: New York.
2 Israel GM, Bosniak MA (2005). An update of the Bosniak renal cyst classification system. Urology 66(3):484–488.
RADIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF RENAL MASSES 275
(5–15%), and risks of hemorrhage (5%) and tumor spillage (rare). FNA is useful for aspiration of renal abscess or an infected cyst, or to diagnose suspected lymphoma or metastatic lesions.
Table 6.12 provides a practical radiological classification of renal masses.
Table 6.11 Bosniak renal cyst classification system based on CT findings
IBenign simple cysts; thin wall without septa, calcifications, or solid components, water density and no contrast enhancement. No further imaging is needed.
IIBenign cysts with a few thin septa; the wall or septa may contain fine calcification and sharp margins; they are non-enhancing, and usually <3 cm.
IIF Well marginated and may have thin septa or minimal smooth thickening of the septa or wall, which may contain calcification that may also be thick and nodular; no contrast enhancement. Includes totally intrarenal non-enhancing lesions > 3 cm. These require follow-up (designated by the F designation).
IIIIndeterminate cysts with thickened irregular or smooth walls or septa; enhancement present. 40–60% are malignant (cystic renal cell carcinoma and multiloculated cystic renal cell carcinoma). Other class III lesions are benign and include hemorrhagic cysts, infected cysts, and multiloculated cystic nephroma. Surgery is recommended, although additional imaging by MRI or with biopsy is supported by some clinicians.
IV Risk of malignancy is 85–100%. Characteristics of category III cysts plus they contain contrast-enhancing soft-tissue components that are adjacent to and independent of the wall or septum. Surgery is recommended.
Table 6.12 Classification of renal masses by radiographic appearance
Simple cyst |
Complex cyst |
Fatty mass |
Others (excluding |
|
|
|
very rare lesions) |
|
|
|
|
Cyst |
Renal carcinoma |
Angiomyo- |
Renal cell carcinoma |
|
|
lipoma |
|
Multiple cysts |
Cystic nephroma |
Lipoma |
Metastasis |
Parapelvic cyst |
Hemorrhagic cyst |
Liposarcoma |
Lymphoma |
Calyceal |
Metastasis; Wilms |
|
Sarcoma Abscess |
diverticulum |
tumor |
|
|
|
Infected cyst |
|
Tuberculosis |
|
Lymphoma |
|
Oncocytoma |
|
Tuberculosis |
|
Xanthogranulomatous |
|
|
|
pyelonephritis |
|
Renal artery |
|
Pheochromocytoma |
|
aneurysm |
|
(adrenal) |
|
Arteriovenous |
|
Wilms tumor (p. 328) |
|
malformation |
|
|
|
Hydrocalyx |
|
Transitional cell carcinoma |
|
|
|
|
276 CHAPTER 6 Urological neoplasia
Benign renal masses
The most common (70%) are simple cysts, present in >50% of >50-year- olds. Rarely symptomatic, treatment by aspiration or laparoscopic unroofing is seldom considered.
Most benign renal tumors are rare; the two most clinically important are oncocytoma and angiomyolipoma. Solid masses <2.0 cm are benign in up to 30% of cases, therefore a period of observation is reasonable as many of these may not grow, especially in older or debilitated patients.
Oncocytoma
This is uncommon, accounting for 3–7% of renal tumors. Males are twice as commonly affected as females. They occur simultaneously with renal cell carcinoma in 7–32% of cases.
Pathology
Oncocytomas are spherical, capsulated, and brown/tan in color, with a mean size of 4–6 cm. Half contain a central scar. They may be multifocal and bilateral (4–13%) and 10–20% extend into perinephric fat.
Histologically, they comprise aggregates of eosinophilic cells, packed with mitochondria. Mitoses are rare and they are considered benign, not known to metastasize.
It is often difficult to distinguish oncocytoma from chromophobe RCC. There is often loss of the Y chromosome.
Presentation
Oncocytomas often (83%) present as an incidental finding, or with flank pain or hematuria.
Investigations
Oncocytoma cannot often be distinguished radiologically from RCCs; it may coexist with RCC. Rarely, they exhibit a spoke-wheel pattern on CT scanning, caused by a stellate central scar. Percutaneous biopsy is not recommended since it often leads to continuing uncertainty about the diagnosis.
Treatment
Partial nephrectomy (open or laparoscopic) is indicated whenever technically feasible, based on lesion size and location. Radical nephrectomy is rarely indicated unless the lesion is very large and partial nephrectomy is not possible or diagnosis is uncertain. Ablation is used in selected cases.
No aggressive follow-up is usually necessary.
Angiomyolipoma (AML)
Eighty percent of these benign clonal neoplasms (hamartomas) occur sporadically, mostly in middle-aged females. 20% are in association with tuberous sclerosis (TS)—an autosomal dominant syndrome characterized by mental retardation, epilepsy, adenoma sebaceum, and other hamartomas.
Half of TS patients develop AMLs. The mean age is 30 years, and 66% of patients are female. Frequently, AMLs are multifocal and bilateral.
BENIGN RENAL MASSES 277
Pathology
AML is composed of blood vessels, smooth muscle, and fat. They are always considered benign, although extrarenal AMLs have been reported in venous system and hilar lymph nodes. Macroscopically, it looks like a well-circumscribed lump of fat. Solitary AMLs are more frequently found in the right kidney.
HMB-45 is a monoclonal antibody against a melanoma-associated antigen seen in AML and can differentiate cases from other renal cortical neoplasms.
Presentation
AMLs frequently present as incidental findings (>50%) on ultrasound or CT scans. They may present with flank pain, palpable mass, or painless hematuria. Massive and life-threatening retroperitoneal bleeding occurs in up to 10% of cases (Wunderlich syndrome).
Pregnant women appear to be at an increased risk for hemorrhage.
Investigations
Ultrasound reflects from fat, hence it has a characteristic bright echo pattern. This does not cast an acoustic shadow beyond, helping to distinguish an AML from a calculus. CT shows fatty tumor as low-density (Hounsfield units <10) in 86% of AMLs. If the proportion of fat is low, a definite diagnosis cannot be made.
Measurement of the diameter is relevant to treatment. On MRI, adipose tissue has high signal intensity on T1-weighted images and lower on T2-weighted images
Treatment
In studies, 52–82% of patients with AML >4 cm are symptomatic compared with only 23% with smaller tumors. Therefore, asymptomatic AMLs can be followed with serial ultrasound if <4 cm, while those bleeding or >4 cm should be treated surgically or by embolization.
Emergency nephrectomy or selective renal artery embolization may be life saving. In patients with TS, in whom multiple bilateral lesions are present, conservative treatment should be attempted.