- •Hematuria II: causes and investigation
- •Hematospermia
- •Lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS)
- •Nocturia and nocturnal polyuria
- •Flank pain
- •Urinary incontinence in adults
- •Genital symptoms
- •Abdominal examination in urological disease
- •Digital rectal examination (DRE)
- •Lumps in the groin
- •Lumps in the scrotum
- •2 Urological investigations
- •Urine examination
- •Urine cytology
- •Radiological imaging of the urinary tract
- •Uses of plain abdominal radiography (KUB X-ray—kidneys, ureters, bladder)
- •Intravenous pyelography (IVP)
- •Other urological contrast studies
- •Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
- •Radioisotope imaging
- •Post-void residual urine volume measurement
- •3 Bladder outlet obstruction
- •Regulation of prostate growth and development of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)
- •Pathophysiology and causes of bladder outlet obstruction (BOO) and BPH
- •Benign prostatic obstruction (BPO): symptoms and signs
- •Diagnostic tests in men with LUTS thought to be due to BPH
- •Why do men seek treatment for their symptoms?
- •Watchful waiting for uncomplicated BPH
- •Medical management of BPH: combination therapy
- •Medical management of BPH: alternative drug therapy
- •Minimally invasive management of BPH: surgical alternatives to TURP
- •Invasive surgical alternatives to TURP
- •TURP and open prostatectomy
- •Indications for and technique of urethral catheterization
- •Indications for and technique of suprapubic catheterization
- •Management of nocturia and nocturnal polyuria
- •High-pressure chronic retention (HPCR)
- •Bladder outlet obstruction and retention in women
- •Urethral stricture disease
- •4 Incontinence
- •Causes and pathophysiology
- •Evaluation
- •Treatment of sphincter weakness incontinence: injection therapy
- •Treatment of sphincter weakness incontinence: retropubic suspension
- •Treatment of sphincter weakness incontinence: pubovaginal slings
- •Overactive bladder: conventional treatment
- •Overactive bladder: options for failed conventional therapy
- •“Mixed” incontinence
- •Post-prostatectomy incontinence
- •Incontinence in the elderly patient
- •Urinary tract infection: microbiology
- •Lower urinary tract infection
- •Recurrent urinary tract infection
- •Urinary tract infection: treatment
- •Acute pyelonephritis
- •Pyonephrosis and perinephric abscess
- •Other forms of pyelonephritis
- •Chronic pyelonephritis
- •Septicemia and urosepsis
- •Fournier gangrene
- •Epididymitis and orchitis
- •Periurethral abscess
- •Prostatitis: presentation, evaluation, and treatment
- •Other prostate infections
- •Interstitial cystitis
- •Tuberculosis
- •Parasitic infections
- •HIV in urological surgery
- •6 Urological neoplasia
- •Pathology and molecular biology
- •Prostate cancer: epidemiology and etiology
- •Prostate cancer: incidence, prevalence, and mortality
- •Prostate cancer pathology: premalignant lesions
- •Counseling before prostate cancer screening
- •Prostate cancer: clinical presentation
- •PSA and prostate cancer
- •PSA derivatives: free-to-total ratio, density, and velocity
- •Prostate cancer: transrectal ultrasonography and biopsies
- •Prostate cancer staging
- •Prostate cancer grading
- •General principles of management of localized prostate cancer
- •Management of localized prostate cancer: watchful waiting and active surveillance
- •Management of localized prostate cancer: radical prostatectomy
- •Postoperative course after radical prostatectomy
- •Prostate cancer control with radical prostatectomy
- •Management of localized prostate cancer: radical external beam radiotherapy (EBRT)
- •Management of localized prostate cancer: brachytherapy (BT)
- •Management of localized and radiorecurrent prostate cancer: cryotherapy and HIFU
- •Management of locally advanced nonmetastatic prostate cancer (T3–4 N0M0)
- •Management of advanced prostate cancer: hormone therapy I
- •Management of advanced prostate cancer: hormone therapy II
- •Management of advanced prostate cancer: hormone therapy III
- •Management of advanced prostate cancer: androgen-independent/ castration-resistant disease
- •Palliative management of prostate cancer
- •Prostate cancer: prevention; complementary and alternative therapies
- •Bladder cancer: epidemiology and etiology
- •Bladder cancer: pathology and staging
- •Bladder cancer: presentation
- •Bladder cancer: diagnosis and staging
- •Muscle-invasive bladder cancer: surgical management of localized (pT2/3a) disease
- •Muscle-invasive bladder cancer: radical and palliative radiotherapy
- •Muscle-invasive bladder cancer: management of locally advanced and metastatic disease
- •Bladder cancer: urinary diversion after cystectomy
- •Transitional cell carcinoma (UC) of the renal pelvis and ureter
- •Radiological assessment of renal masses
- •Benign renal masses
- •Renal cell carcinoma: epidemiology and etiology
- •Renal cell carcinoma: pathology, staging, and prognosis
- •Renal cell carcinoma: presentation and investigations
- •Renal cell carcinoma: active surveillance
- •Renal cell carcinoma: surgical treatment I
- •Renal cell carcinoma: surgical treatment II
- •Renal cell carcinoma: management of metastatic disease
- •Testicular cancer: epidemiology and etiology
- •Testicular cancer: clinical presentation
- •Testicular cancer: serum markers
- •Testicular cancer: pathology and staging
- •Testicular cancer: prognostic staging system for metastatic germ cell cancer
- •Testicular cancer: management of non-seminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCT)
- •Testicular cancer: management of seminoma, IGCN, and lymphoma
- •Penile neoplasia: benign, viral-related, and premalignant lesions
- •Penile cancer: epidemiology, risk factors, and pathology
- •Squamous cell carcinoma of the penis: clinical management
- •Carcinoma of the scrotum
- •Tumors of the testicular adnexa
- •Urethral cancer
- •Wilms tumor and neuroblastoma
- •7 Miscellaneous urological diseases of the kidney
- •Cystic renal disease: simple cysts
- •Cystic renal disease: calyceal diverticulum
- •Cystic renal disease: medullary sponge kidney (MSK)
- •Acquired renal cystic disease (ARCD)
- •Autosomal dominant (adult) polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD)
- •Ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) obstruction in adults
- •Anomalies of renal ascent and fusion: horseshoe kidney, pelvic kidney, malrotation
- •Renal duplications
- •8 Stone disease
- •Kidney stones: epidemiology
- •Kidney stones: types and predisposing factors
- •Kidney stones: mechanisms of formation
- •Evaluation of the stone former
- •Kidney stones: presentation and diagnosis
- •Kidney stone treatment options: watchful waiting
- •Stone fragmentation techniques: extracorporeal lithotripsy (ESWL)
- •Intracorporeal techniques of stone fragmentation (fragmentation within the body)
- •Kidney stone treatment: percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL)
- •Kidney stones: open stone surgery
- •Kidney stones: medical therapy (dissolution therapy)
- •Ureteric stones: presentation
- •Ureteric stones: diagnostic radiological imaging
- •Ureteric stones: acute management
- •Ureteric stones: indications for intervention to relieve obstruction and/or remove the stone
- •Ureteric stone treatment
- •Treatment options for ureteric stones
- •Prevention of calcium oxalate stone formation
- •Bladder stones
- •Management of ureteric stones in pregnancy
- •Hydronephrosis
- •Management of ureteric strictures (other than UPJ obstruction)
- •Pathophysiology of urinary tract obstruction
- •Ureter innervation
- •10 Trauma to the urinary tract and other urological emergencies
- •Renal trauma: clinical and radiological assessment
- •Renal trauma: treatment
- •Ureteral injuries: mechanisms and diagnosis
- •Ureteral injuries: management
- •Bladder and urethral injuries associated with pelvic fractures
- •Bladder injuries
- •Posterior urethral injuries in males and urethral injuries in females
- •Anterior urethral injuries
- •Testicular injuries
- •Penile injuries
- •Torsion of the testis and testicular appendages
- •Paraphimosis
- •Malignant ureteral obstruction
- •Spinal cord and cauda equina compression
- •11 Infertility
- •Male reproductive physiology
- •Etiology and evaluation of male infertility
- •Lab investigation of male infertility
- •Oligospermia and azoospermia
- •Varicocele
- •Treatment options for male factor infertility
- •12 Disorders of erectile function, ejaculation, and seminal vesicles
- •Physiology of erection and ejaculation
- •Impotence: evaluation
- •Impotence: treatment
- •Retrograde ejaculation
- •Peyronie’s disease
- •Priapism
- •13 Neuropathic bladder
- •Innervation of the lower urinary tract (LUT)
- •Physiology of urine storage and micturition
- •Bladder and sphincter behavior in the patient with neurological disease
- •The neuropathic lower urinary tract: clinical consequences of storage and emptying problems
- •Bladder management techniques for the neuropathic patient
- •Catheters and sheaths and the neuropathic patient
- •Management of incontinence in the neuropathic patient
- •Management of recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs) in the neuropathic patient
- •Management of hydronephrosis in the neuropathic patient
- •Bladder dysfunction in multiple sclerosis, in Parkinson disease, after stroke, and in other neurological disease
- •Neuromodulation in lower urinary tract dysfunction
- •14 Urological problems in pregnancy
- •Physiological and anatomical changes in the urinary tract
- •Urinary tract infection (UTI)
- •Hydronephrosis
- •15 Pediatric urology
- •Embryology: urinary tract
- •Undescended testes
- •Urinary tract infection (UTI)
- •Ectopic ureter
- •Ureterocele
- •Ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) obstruction
- •Hypospadias
- •Normal sexual differentiation
- •Abnormal sexual differentiation
- •Cystic kidney disease
- •Exstrophy
- •Epispadias
- •Posterior urethral valves
- •Non-neurogenic voiding dysfunction
- •Nocturnal enuresis
- •16 Urological surgery and equipment
- •Preparation of the patient for urological surgery
- •Antibiotic prophylaxis in urological surgery
- •Complications of surgery in general: DVT and PE
- •Fluid balance and management of shock in the surgical patient
- •Patient safety in the operating room
- •Transurethral resection (TUR) syndrome
- •Catheters and drains in urological surgery
- •Guide wires
- •JJ stents
- •Lasers in urological surgery
- •Diathermy
- •Sterilization of urological equipment
- •Telescopes and light sources in urological endoscopy
- •Consent: general principles
- •Cystoscopy
- •Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP)
- •Transurethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT)
- •Optical urethrotomy
- •Circumcision
- •Hydrocele and epididymal cyst removal
- •Nesbit procedure
- •Vasectomy and vasovasostomy
- •Orchiectomy
- •Urological incisions
- •JJ stent insertion
- •Nephrectomy and nephroureterectomy
- •Radical prostatectomy
- •Radical cystectomy
- •Ileal conduit
- •Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL)
- •Ureteroscopes and ureteroscopy
- •Pyeloplasty
- •Laparoscopic surgery
- •Endoscopic cystolitholapaxy and (open) cystolithotomy
- •Scrotal exploration for torsion and orchiopexy
- •17 Basic science of relevance to urological practice
- •Physiology of bladder and urethra
- •Renal anatomy: renal blood flow and renal function
- •Renal physiology: regulation of water balance
- •Renal physiology: regulation of sodium and potassium excretion
- •Renal physiology: acid–base balance
- •18 Urological eponyms
- •Index
242 CHAPTER 6 Urological neoplasia
Palliative management of prostate cancer
Involvement of the acute pain team, palliative care physicians, and nurses is often necessary in the terminal phase of the illness to optimize quality of life.
Pain
Pain is undoubtedly the most debilitating symptom of advanced prostate cancer. The pathogenesis of this pain is poorly understood, but there is known to be increased osteoclastic and osteoblastic activity. Table 6.7 categorizes the pain syndromes and their management.
Radiation can be given for palliation of painful bony metastases rather than for curative intent (typical treatment 300 cGy in 10 divided doses). Strontium-89 and samarium-153 can palliate bone pain and are most useful for diffuse metastasis, but they can have an adverse effect on platelets in particular.
Spinal cord compression (see p. 457)
Lower urinary tract symptoms/urinary retention
A TURP may be required for bladder outflow obstruction (BOO) or retention. Instrumentation can be difficult if there is a bulky fixed prostate cancer. The bladder may be contracted due to disease involvement, causing misery even after relief of BOO. This may respond to anticholinergic therapy.
A long-term urethral or suprapubic catheter may be required for difficult voiding symptoms or recurrent retention.
Ureteral obstruction (see p. 456)
This is a urological oncological emergency. Locally advanced prostate cancer and bladder cancer may cause bilateral ureteral obstruction. The patient presents with symptoms and signs of renal failure or is anuric without a palpable bladder. Renal ultrasound will demonstrate bilateral hydronephrosis and an empty bladder.
After treating any life-threatening metabolic abnormalities such as hyperkalemia, the treatment options include bilateral percutaneous nephrostomies or ureteral stents. Insertion of retrograde ureteral stents in this scenario is often unsuccessful because tumor on the trigone obscures the location of the ureteral orifices.
Antegrade ureteral stenting following placement of nephrostomies is usually successful.
Unilateral ureteral obstruction
This is occasionally observed at presentation or on progression. If asymptomatic, this may be managed conservatively provided there is a normal contralateral kidney.
PALLIATIVE MANAGEMENT OF PROSTATE CANCER 243
Anemia, thrombocytopenia, and coagulopathy
For some patients, hemoglobin levels drop rapidly and they become symptomatic on a regular basis. Some of this drop may be due to the androgen ablation. In more advanced disease, bone marrow replacement is the cause. This tends to be normochromic and normocytic and often occurs without other symptoms and with normal renal function.
Such patients require regular transfusions. Platelet transfusions are rarely required for bleeding.
Terminal patients may develop a clinical picture similar to disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) leading to problematic hematuria.
Table 6.7 Pain syndromes and their management
Pain type |
Initial management |
Other options |
|
|
Focal bone pain |
Medical: simple, NSAIDs, |
Surgical fixation of |
|
|
|
opiates Single-shot |
pathological fracture |
|
|
|
radiotherapy, 800 cGy (75% |
or extensive lytic |
|
|
|
respond up to 6 months) |
metastasis |
|
|
|
|
|||
Diffuse bone pain |
Medical: NSAIDs, opiates |
Steroids; |
|
|
|
||||
|
Multishot radiotherapy or |
bisphosphonates; |
|
|
|
radiopharmaceutical (e.g., |
chemotherapy |
|
|
|
Strontium89) |
|
|
|
Epidural metastasis and |
See p. 457 |
|
|
|
cord compression |
|
|
|
|
Plexopathies (rare— |
Medical: NSAIDs, opiates |
Tricyclics; |
|
|
caused by direct tumor |
Radiotherapy; nerve blocks |
anticonvulsants |
|
|
extension) |
|
|
|
|
Other pain syndromes: |
Radiotherapy Medical: |
Intrathecal |
|
|
skull/cranial nerve, liver, |
NSAIDs, opiates, steroids |
chemotherapy for |
|
|
rectum/perineum |
|
meningeal involvement |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
244 CHAPTER 6 Urological neoplasia
Prostate cancer: prevention; complementary and alternative therapies
As many as 27% of men in their third decade have histological prostate cancer, even though the disease is rarely detected clinically <50 years of age. Further, a likely premalignant lesion (high-grade PIN) has been identified. This suggests there may be opportunity for preventative strategies.
Dietary intervention
There are many epidemiological and laboratory data supporting dietary interventions, though randomized prospective trials are awaited.
High-fat diets, particularly those rich in saturated fat and omega-6 fatty acids, are linked to increased risk of prostate cancer diagnosis.
Soy products contain phytoestrogens including the isoflavone genistein. Genistein is a natural inhibitor of tyrosine kinase receptors and inhibits prostate cancer cell lines. Chinese Americans have a 24-fold risk of developing prostate cancer compared to that of native Chinese, perhaps because of a difference in their respective diets.
Lycopene, present in cooked tomatoes and tomato products, is thought to reduce risk of prostate cancer progression and inhibit cell lines.
Vitamins A (retinoids) and D both inhibit growth of prostate cell lines, and vitamin D receptor polymorphisms appear to predispose certain individuals to prostate cancer.
The SELECT Trial is the largest cancer prevention trial to date that studied the effect of selenium and vitamin E, alone and in combination, on reducing the risk of prostate cancer. Preliminary data suggested that these agents might be effective. Unfortunately, the trial did not demonstrate an advantage for these agents; there was an early suggestion of an increased health risk with these agents.1
Studies from the UK, Europe, and the United States have shown that 25–40% of prostate cancer patients are taking some form of complementary therapy, most without informing their doctor. These can occasionally be harmful: for example, a Chinese herb mixture called PC-SPES, now withdrawn, frequently caused thromboembolism to contamination with estrogenic compounds that likely accounted for some of its reported activity.
Smoking has been shown in population studies to be significantly associated not with prostate cancer diagnosis but with fatal prostate cancer. No definite link exists between alcohol consumption, vasectomy, or sexual activity and prostate cancer.
Studies have suggested an increased risk associated with early sexual activity and a reduced risk associated with frequent masturbation, but these require substantiation.
1 Lippman SM, Klein EA, Goodman PJ, .et al. (2009). Effect of selenium and vitamin E on risk of prostate cancer and other cancers: the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT). JAMA 301(1):39–51.
PROSTATE CANCER 245
Chemoprevention with antiandrogens
Given that prostate cancer is believed to start as an androgen-dependent disease, interest in its prevention has also focused on antiandrogens. While nonsteroidal antiandrogens would have unacceptable side effects and cost, the 5-A reductase inhibitors could be feasible chemoprevention agents as they are already used for the treatment of symptomatic BPH.
The Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial (PCPT) recruited 18,000 men who had no clinical or biochemical evidence of prostate cancer. They were randomized to placebo or finasteride 5 mg daily for up to 7 years. The men were offered biopsy if they developed a rising PSA or an abnormality on DRE, or at end of study.
Prostate cancer was detected in 24% and 18% of participants in placebo and finasteride arms, respectively, a 25% reduction in prostate cancer. However, Gleason 7+ cancers were significantly more frequent in the finasteride arm. This increase in high-grade cancer has been ascribed to sampling artifact due to the reduction in the size of the prostate.
The REDUCE trial in over 8000 men used the 5-A reductase inhibitor dutasteride in a placebo-controlled trial to attempt to reduce the risk of prostate cancer in a group of high-risk men (i.e., previous negative biopsy). Follow-up biopsy was performed at 2 and 4 years and for cause (i.e., rising PSA, new prostate nodule). The study demonstrated a 23% reduction in cancer with improvements in BPH-related outcomes. There was no suggestion of increased Gleason score cancers.
A 2008 joint recommendation of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Urological Association states that healthy men who have a prostate-specific antigen score of 3.0 or lower, have no signs of prostate cancer, and plan to be screened regularly for the disease should discuss with their physician whether to take 5-Areductase inhibitors to decrease their risk of developing prostate cancer.2
2 Kramer BS, et al. (2009). Use of 5-A-reductase inhibitors for prostate cancer chemoprevention: American Society of Clinical Oncology/American Urological Association 2008 Clinical Practice Guideline. J Urol 181:1642–1657.