- •Hematuria II: causes and investigation
- •Hematospermia
- •Lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS)
- •Nocturia and nocturnal polyuria
- •Flank pain
- •Urinary incontinence in adults
- •Genital symptoms
- •Abdominal examination in urological disease
- •Digital rectal examination (DRE)
- •Lumps in the groin
- •Lumps in the scrotum
- •2 Urological investigations
- •Urine examination
- •Urine cytology
- •Radiological imaging of the urinary tract
- •Uses of plain abdominal radiography (KUB X-ray—kidneys, ureters, bladder)
- •Intravenous pyelography (IVP)
- •Other urological contrast studies
- •Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
- •Radioisotope imaging
- •Post-void residual urine volume measurement
- •3 Bladder outlet obstruction
- •Regulation of prostate growth and development of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)
- •Pathophysiology and causes of bladder outlet obstruction (BOO) and BPH
- •Benign prostatic obstruction (BPO): symptoms and signs
- •Diagnostic tests in men with LUTS thought to be due to BPH
- •Why do men seek treatment for their symptoms?
- •Watchful waiting for uncomplicated BPH
- •Medical management of BPH: combination therapy
- •Medical management of BPH: alternative drug therapy
- •Minimally invasive management of BPH: surgical alternatives to TURP
- •Invasive surgical alternatives to TURP
- •TURP and open prostatectomy
- •Indications for and technique of urethral catheterization
- •Indications for and technique of suprapubic catheterization
- •Management of nocturia and nocturnal polyuria
- •High-pressure chronic retention (HPCR)
- •Bladder outlet obstruction and retention in women
- •Urethral stricture disease
- •4 Incontinence
- •Causes and pathophysiology
- •Evaluation
- •Treatment of sphincter weakness incontinence: injection therapy
- •Treatment of sphincter weakness incontinence: retropubic suspension
- •Treatment of sphincter weakness incontinence: pubovaginal slings
- •Overactive bladder: conventional treatment
- •Overactive bladder: options for failed conventional therapy
- •“Mixed” incontinence
- •Post-prostatectomy incontinence
- •Incontinence in the elderly patient
- •Urinary tract infection: microbiology
- •Lower urinary tract infection
- •Recurrent urinary tract infection
- •Urinary tract infection: treatment
- •Acute pyelonephritis
- •Pyonephrosis and perinephric abscess
- •Other forms of pyelonephritis
- •Chronic pyelonephritis
- •Septicemia and urosepsis
- •Fournier gangrene
- •Epididymitis and orchitis
- •Periurethral abscess
- •Prostatitis: presentation, evaluation, and treatment
- •Other prostate infections
- •Interstitial cystitis
- •Tuberculosis
- •Parasitic infections
- •HIV in urological surgery
- •6 Urological neoplasia
- •Pathology and molecular biology
- •Prostate cancer: epidemiology and etiology
- •Prostate cancer: incidence, prevalence, and mortality
- •Prostate cancer pathology: premalignant lesions
- •Counseling before prostate cancer screening
- •Prostate cancer: clinical presentation
- •PSA and prostate cancer
- •PSA derivatives: free-to-total ratio, density, and velocity
- •Prostate cancer: transrectal ultrasonography and biopsies
- •Prostate cancer staging
- •Prostate cancer grading
- •General principles of management of localized prostate cancer
- •Management of localized prostate cancer: watchful waiting and active surveillance
- •Management of localized prostate cancer: radical prostatectomy
- •Postoperative course after radical prostatectomy
- •Prostate cancer control with radical prostatectomy
- •Management of localized prostate cancer: radical external beam radiotherapy (EBRT)
- •Management of localized prostate cancer: brachytherapy (BT)
- •Management of localized and radiorecurrent prostate cancer: cryotherapy and HIFU
- •Management of locally advanced nonmetastatic prostate cancer (T3–4 N0M0)
- •Management of advanced prostate cancer: hormone therapy I
- •Management of advanced prostate cancer: hormone therapy II
- •Management of advanced prostate cancer: hormone therapy III
- •Management of advanced prostate cancer: androgen-independent/ castration-resistant disease
- •Palliative management of prostate cancer
- •Prostate cancer: prevention; complementary and alternative therapies
- •Bladder cancer: epidemiology and etiology
- •Bladder cancer: pathology and staging
- •Bladder cancer: presentation
- •Bladder cancer: diagnosis and staging
- •Muscle-invasive bladder cancer: surgical management of localized (pT2/3a) disease
- •Muscle-invasive bladder cancer: radical and palliative radiotherapy
- •Muscle-invasive bladder cancer: management of locally advanced and metastatic disease
- •Bladder cancer: urinary diversion after cystectomy
- •Transitional cell carcinoma (UC) of the renal pelvis and ureter
- •Radiological assessment of renal masses
- •Benign renal masses
- •Renal cell carcinoma: epidemiology and etiology
- •Renal cell carcinoma: pathology, staging, and prognosis
- •Renal cell carcinoma: presentation and investigations
- •Renal cell carcinoma: active surveillance
- •Renal cell carcinoma: surgical treatment I
- •Renal cell carcinoma: surgical treatment II
- •Renal cell carcinoma: management of metastatic disease
- •Testicular cancer: epidemiology and etiology
- •Testicular cancer: clinical presentation
- •Testicular cancer: serum markers
- •Testicular cancer: pathology and staging
- •Testicular cancer: prognostic staging system for metastatic germ cell cancer
- •Testicular cancer: management of non-seminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCT)
- •Testicular cancer: management of seminoma, IGCN, and lymphoma
- •Penile neoplasia: benign, viral-related, and premalignant lesions
- •Penile cancer: epidemiology, risk factors, and pathology
- •Squamous cell carcinoma of the penis: clinical management
- •Carcinoma of the scrotum
- •Tumors of the testicular adnexa
- •Urethral cancer
- •Wilms tumor and neuroblastoma
- •7 Miscellaneous urological diseases of the kidney
- •Cystic renal disease: simple cysts
- •Cystic renal disease: calyceal diverticulum
- •Cystic renal disease: medullary sponge kidney (MSK)
- •Acquired renal cystic disease (ARCD)
- •Autosomal dominant (adult) polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD)
- •Ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) obstruction in adults
- •Anomalies of renal ascent and fusion: horseshoe kidney, pelvic kidney, malrotation
- •Renal duplications
- •8 Stone disease
- •Kidney stones: epidemiology
- •Kidney stones: types and predisposing factors
- •Kidney stones: mechanisms of formation
- •Evaluation of the stone former
- •Kidney stones: presentation and diagnosis
- •Kidney stone treatment options: watchful waiting
- •Stone fragmentation techniques: extracorporeal lithotripsy (ESWL)
- •Intracorporeal techniques of stone fragmentation (fragmentation within the body)
- •Kidney stone treatment: percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL)
- •Kidney stones: open stone surgery
- •Kidney stones: medical therapy (dissolution therapy)
- •Ureteric stones: presentation
- •Ureteric stones: diagnostic radiological imaging
- •Ureteric stones: acute management
- •Ureteric stones: indications for intervention to relieve obstruction and/or remove the stone
- •Ureteric stone treatment
- •Treatment options for ureteric stones
- •Prevention of calcium oxalate stone formation
- •Bladder stones
- •Management of ureteric stones in pregnancy
- •Hydronephrosis
- •Management of ureteric strictures (other than UPJ obstruction)
- •Pathophysiology of urinary tract obstruction
- •Ureter innervation
- •10 Trauma to the urinary tract and other urological emergencies
- •Renal trauma: clinical and radiological assessment
- •Renal trauma: treatment
- •Ureteral injuries: mechanisms and diagnosis
- •Ureteral injuries: management
- •Bladder and urethral injuries associated with pelvic fractures
- •Bladder injuries
- •Posterior urethral injuries in males and urethral injuries in females
- •Anterior urethral injuries
- •Testicular injuries
- •Penile injuries
- •Torsion of the testis and testicular appendages
- •Paraphimosis
- •Malignant ureteral obstruction
- •Spinal cord and cauda equina compression
- •11 Infertility
- •Male reproductive physiology
- •Etiology and evaluation of male infertility
- •Lab investigation of male infertility
- •Oligospermia and azoospermia
- •Varicocele
- •Treatment options for male factor infertility
- •12 Disorders of erectile function, ejaculation, and seminal vesicles
- •Physiology of erection and ejaculation
- •Impotence: evaluation
- •Impotence: treatment
- •Retrograde ejaculation
- •Peyronie’s disease
- •Priapism
- •13 Neuropathic bladder
- •Innervation of the lower urinary tract (LUT)
- •Physiology of urine storage and micturition
- •Bladder and sphincter behavior in the patient with neurological disease
- •The neuropathic lower urinary tract: clinical consequences of storage and emptying problems
- •Bladder management techniques for the neuropathic patient
- •Catheters and sheaths and the neuropathic patient
- •Management of incontinence in the neuropathic patient
- •Management of recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs) in the neuropathic patient
- •Management of hydronephrosis in the neuropathic patient
- •Bladder dysfunction in multiple sclerosis, in Parkinson disease, after stroke, and in other neurological disease
- •Neuromodulation in lower urinary tract dysfunction
- •14 Urological problems in pregnancy
- •Physiological and anatomical changes in the urinary tract
- •Urinary tract infection (UTI)
- •Hydronephrosis
- •15 Pediatric urology
- •Embryology: urinary tract
- •Undescended testes
- •Urinary tract infection (UTI)
- •Ectopic ureter
- •Ureterocele
- •Ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) obstruction
- •Hypospadias
- •Normal sexual differentiation
- •Abnormal sexual differentiation
- •Cystic kidney disease
- •Exstrophy
- •Epispadias
- •Posterior urethral valves
- •Non-neurogenic voiding dysfunction
- •Nocturnal enuresis
- •16 Urological surgery and equipment
- •Preparation of the patient for urological surgery
- •Antibiotic prophylaxis in urological surgery
- •Complications of surgery in general: DVT and PE
- •Fluid balance and management of shock in the surgical patient
- •Patient safety in the operating room
- •Transurethral resection (TUR) syndrome
- •Catheters and drains in urological surgery
- •Guide wires
- •JJ stents
- •Lasers in urological surgery
- •Diathermy
- •Sterilization of urological equipment
- •Telescopes and light sources in urological endoscopy
- •Consent: general principles
- •Cystoscopy
- •Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP)
- •Transurethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT)
- •Optical urethrotomy
- •Circumcision
- •Hydrocele and epididymal cyst removal
- •Nesbit procedure
- •Vasectomy and vasovasostomy
- •Orchiectomy
- •Urological incisions
- •JJ stent insertion
- •Nephrectomy and nephroureterectomy
- •Radical prostatectomy
- •Radical cystectomy
- •Ileal conduit
- •Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL)
- •Ureteroscopes and ureteroscopy
- •Pyeloplasty
- •Laparoscopic surgery
- •Endoscopic cystolitholapaxy and (open) cystolithotomy
- •Scrotal exploration for torsion and orchiopexy
- •17 Basic science of relevance to urological practice
- •Physiology of bladder and urethra
- •Renal anatomy: renal blood flow and renal function
- •Renal physiology: regulation of water balance
- •Renal physiology: regulation of sodium and potassium excretion
- •Renal physiology: acid–base balance
- •18 Urological eponyms
- •Index
488 CHAPTER 12 Erectile function and ejaculation
Impotence: evaluation
Impotence (also called erectile dysfunction or ED) describes the persistent inability to achieve or maintain a penile erection sufficient for sexual intercourse.
Epidemiology
Moderate to severe ED is found in ~10% of men aged 40–70 years. Prevalence increases with age.
Etiology
ED is generally divided into psychogenic and organic causes (Table 12.2), although most cases are multifactorial.
History
•Sexual: onset of ED (sudden or gradual); duration of problem; presence of erections (nocturnal, early morning, spontaneous); ability to maintain erections (early collapse, not fully rigid); loss of libido; relationship issues (frequency of intercourse and sexual desire, relationship problems).
•Medical and surgical: hypertension; cardiac disease; peripheral vascular disease; diabetes mellitus; endocrine or neurological disorders; pelvic surgery, radiotherapy, or trauma (damaging innervation and blood supply to the pelvis and penis).
•Drugs: inquire about current medications and ED treatments already tried (and outcome).
•Social: smoking, alcohol consumption.
An organic cause is more likely with gradual onset (unless associated with an obvious cause such as surgery, where onset is acute); loss of spontaneous erections; intact libido and ejaculatory function; existing medical risk factors; and older age groups. The International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF) can be used to quantify severity.
Examination
Full physical examination (CVS, abdomen, neurological); digital rectal examination to assess prostate; external genitalia assessment to document foreskin phimosis and penile lesions (Peyronie’s plaques); confirm presence, size, and location of testicles.
The bulbocavernosus reflex can be performed to test integrity of spinal segments S2–4 (squeezing the glans causes anal sphincter and bulbocavernosal muscle contraction).
Investigation
•Blood tests: fasting glucose; PSA; serum testosterone; sex hormone binding globulin; LH/FSH; prolactin; thyroid function test; fasting lipid profile
•Nocturnal penile tumescence testing: Rigiscan device contains two rings that are placed around the base and distal penile shaft to measure tumescence and number, duration, and rigidity of nocturnal erections. Erections occur most frequently during REM sleep—80%.
IMPOTENCE: EVALUATION 489
•Color Doppler US measures arterial peak systolic and end diastolic velocities,1 preand post-intracavernosal injection of PGE.1
•Cavernosometry: intracavernosal injection of vasoactive drug followed by saline infusion, the rate of which is proportional to the degree of any venous leaking
•Cavernosography: imaging and measurement of blood flow of the penis after intracavernosal injection of contrast and induction of artificial erection. It is used to identify venous leaks.
•Penile arteriography is only indicated in young, otherwise healthy patients with a history of trauma-related impotence in whom vascular reconstruction is being contemplated.
Table 12.2 Causes of erectile dysfunction: “IMPOTENCE”*
Inflammatory |
Prostatitis |
Mechanical |
Peyronie’s disease |
Psychological |
Depression; anxiety; relationship difficulties; lack of |
|
attraction; stress |
Occlusive vascular factors
Arteriogenic: hypertension; smoking; hyperlipidemia; diabetes mellitus; peripheral vascular disease
Venogenic: impairment of veno-occlusive mechanism (due to anatomical or degenerative changes)
Trauma |
Pelvic fracture; spinal cord injury; penile trauma |
|
|
Extra factors |
Iatrogenic: pelvic surgery; prostatectomy |
|
|
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Other: increasing age; chronic renal failure; cirrhosis |
|
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Neurogenic |
CNS: multiple sclerosis (MS); Parkinson disease; |
|
|
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multisystem atrophy; tumor |
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Spinal cord: spina bifida; MS; syringomyelia; tumor |
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PNS: pelvic surgery or radiotherapy; peripheral |
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|
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neuropathy (diabetes, alcohol-related) |
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Chemical |
Antihypertensives (B-blockers, thiazides, ACE inhibitors) |
|
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Antiarrhythmics (amiodarone) |
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Antidepressants (tricyclics, MAOIs, SSRIs) |
|
|
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Anxiolytics (benzodiazepine) |
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Antiandrogens (finasteride, cyproterone acetate) |
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LHRH analogues |
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Anticonvulsants (phenytoin, carbamazepine) |
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Anti-Parkinson drugs (levodopa) |
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Statins (atorvastatin) |
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Alcohol |
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Endocrine |
Hypogonadism; hyperprolactinemia; hypo and |
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hyperthyroidism; diabetes mellitus |
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* Note that this list of causes of impotence is not in the order of frequency. MAOIs, monoamine-oxidase inhibitors; SSRIs, serotonin reuptake inhibitors.
490 CHAPTER 12 Erectile function and ejaculation
Impotence: treatment
A summary of treatment options is given in Table 12.3.
Psychosexual therapy
The aim is to understand and address underlying psychological issues and provide information and treatment in the form of sex education, instruction on improving partner communication skills, cognitive therapy, and behavioral therapy (programmed relearning of couple’s sexual relationship).
Oral medication
Phosphodiesterase type-5 (PDE5) inhibitors
These include sildenafil (Viagra), tadalafil (Cialis), and vardenafil (Levitra). PDE5 inhibitors enhance cavernosal smooth muscle relaxation and erection by blocking the breakdown of cGMP. Sildenifil and vardenifil crossreact slightly with PDE-6, which may explain visual disturbances; Tadalafil cross-reacts with PDE-11, but the consequences of this are unknown. Sexual stimulus is still required to initiate events.
Side effects include headache, flushing, and visual disturbance. Contraindications are patients taking nitrates; recent myocardial infarc-
tion; recent stroke; hypotension; and unstable angina.
Androgen replacement therapy
Testosterone replacement is indicated for hypogonadism. It is available in oral, intramuscular, pellet, patch, and gel forms. In older men, it is recommended that PSA be checked before and during treatment.
Intraurethral therapy
Alprostadil (MUSE) is used. A synthetic prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) pellet is administered into the urethra via a specialized applicator. Once inserted, the penis is gently rolled to encourage the pellet to dissolve into the urethral mucosa, from where it enters the corpora.
Prostaglandin E1 produces an increase in intracellular cAMP, which leads to decreased calcium concentrations and thus smooth muscle relaxation and increased blood flow to the penis.
Side effects include penile pain, priapism, and local reactions.
Intracavernosal therapy
This involves alprostadil/Caverject™ (synthetic PGE1), and papaverine (smooth muscle relaxant) ± phentolamine (A-adrenoceptor agonist). Training of technique and first dose is given by a health professional. The needle is inserted at right angles into the corpus cavernosum on the lateral aspects of mid-penile shaft.
Adverse effects include pain, priapism, and hematoma.
Vacuum erection device
The device contains three components: a vacuum chamber, pump, and constriction band. The penis is placed in the chamber and the vacuum created by the pump increases blood flow to the corpora cavernosa to
IMPOTENCE: TREATMENT 491
induce an erection. The constriction band is placed onto the base of the penis to retain blood in the corpora and maintain rigidity.
Adverse effects include penile coldness and bruising.
Penile prosthesis
Malleable and inflatable penile prostheses are available for surgical implantation into the corpora to provide penile rigidity sufficient for sexual intercourse.
Side effects include mechanical failure, erosions, and infections.
Table 12.3 Treatment options for erectile dysfunction
Organic |
Psychogenic |
|
|
Eliminate underlying risk factors |
Psychosexual counseling ± partner |
|
|
Oral medication |
Oral medication |
|
|
Androgen replacement |
Intraurethral therapy |
|
|
Intraurethral therapy |
Intracavernosal therapy |
|
|
Intracavernosal therapy |
|
|
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Vacuum devices |
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Penile prosthesis |
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