Disciplines
Pharmacy, tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (14th century)
The field of pharmacy can generally be divided into three primary disciplines:
Pharmaceutics
Medicinal chemistry and pharmacognosy
Pharmacy practice
The boundaries between these disciplines and with other sciences, such as biochemistry, are not always clear-cut; and often, collaborative teams from various disciplines research together.
Pharmacologyis sometimes considered a fourth discipline of pharmacy. Although pharmacology is essential to the study of pharmacy, it is not specific to pharmacy. Therefore it is usually considered to be a field of the broadersciences.
Pharmacoinformaticsis considered another new discipline, for systematic drug discovery and development with efficiency and safety.
Professionals
The World Health Organizationestimates that there are at least 2.6 million pharmacists and other pharmaceutical personnel worldwide.[4]
Pharmacists
Main article: Pharmacist
Pharmacists are healthcare professionalswith specialised education and training who perform various roles to ensure optimalhealthoutcomes for their patients through proper medication use. Pharmacists may also besmall-businessproprietors, owning the pharmacy in which they practice. Since pharmacists know about the chemical synthesis mode of action of a particular drug, and its metabolism and physiological effects on the human body in great detail, they play an important role in optimisation of a drug treatment for an individual.
Pharmacists are represented internationally by the International Pharmaceutical Federation(FIP). They are represented at the national level byprofessional organisationssuch as theRoyal Pharmaceutical Societyin the UK, thePharmacy Guild of Australia(PGA), and theAmerican Pharmacists Association(APhA),See also: List of pharmacy associations.
In some cases, the representative body is also the registering body, which is responsible for the regulation and ethicsof the profession.
In the United States, specializations in pharmacy practice recognized by the Board of Pharmaceutical Specialties include: cardiovascular, infectious disease,oncology, pharmacotherapy, nuclear,nutrition, andpsychiatry.[5]TheCommission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacycertifies pharmacists in geriatric pharmacy practice. TheAmerican Board of Applied Toxicologycertifies pharmacists and other medical professionals in appliedtoxicology.
Pharmacy technicians
Main article: Pharmacy technician
Pharmacy technicians support the work of pharmacists and other health professionals by performing a variety of pharmacy related functions, including dispensing prescription drugs and other medical devices to patients and instructing on their use. They may also perform administrative duties in pharmaceutical practice, such as reviewing prescription requests with doctor's offices and insurance companies to ensure correct medications are provided and payment is received.
History
Main articles: History of pharmacy and List of pharmacists
Doctor and pharmacist, illustration from Medicinarius (1505) by Hieronymus Brunschwig.
The earliest known compilation of medicinal substances was the Sushruta Samhita, an IndianAyurvedic treatiseattributed toSushrutain the 6th century BC. However, the earliest text as preserved dates to the 3rd or 4th century AD.
Many Sumerian(late 6th millennium BC - early 2nd millennium BC) cuneiformclay tabletsrecord prescriptions for medicine.[6]
Ancient Egyptian pharmacological knowledge was recorded in various papyri such as the Ebers Papyrusof 1550 BC, and theEdwin Smith Papyrusof the 16th century BC.
Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, Byzantium, 15th century
In Ancient Greece, according to Edward Kremers and Glenn Sonnedecker, "before, during and after the time ofHippocratesthere was a group of experts in medicinal plants. Probably the most important representative of theserhizotomoiwasDiocles of Carystus(4th century BC). He is considered to be the source for all Greek pharmacotherapeutic treatises between the time ofTheophrastusand Dioscorides."[7]The Greek physicianPedanius Dioscoridesis famous for writing a five volume book in his native Greek Περί ύλης ιατρικής in the 1st century AD. The Latin translationDe Materia Medica(Concerning medical substances) was used a basis for many medieval texts, and was built upon by many middle eastern scientists during theIslamic Golden Age. The title coined the termmateria medica.
The earliest known Chinese manual on materia medicais theShennong Bencao Jing(The Divine Farmer's Herb-Root Classic), dating back to the 1st century AD. It was compiled during theHan dynastyand was attributed to the mythicalShennong. Earlier literature included lists of prescriptions for specific ailments, exemplified by a manuscript "Recipes for 52 Ailments", found in theMawangduitomb, sealed in 168 BC. Further details on Chinese pharmacy can be found in thePharmacy in Chinaarticle.
In Japan, at the end of the Asuka period(538-710) and the earlyNara period(710-794), the men who fulfilled roles similar to those of modern pharmacists were highly respected. The place of pharmacists in society was expressly defined in theTaihō Code(701) and re-stated in theYōrō Code(718). Ranked positions in the pre-HeianImperial court were established; and this organizational structure remained largely intact until theMeiji Restoration(1868). In this highly stable hierarchy, the pharmacists—and even pharmacist assistants—were assigned status superior to all others in health-related fields such as physicians and acupuncturists. In the Imperial household, the pharmacist was even ranked above the two personal physicians of the Emperor.[8]
There is a stone sign for a pharmacy with a tripod, a mortar, and a pestle opposite one for a doctor in the Arcadian Way in Ephesus near Kusadasi in Turkey.[9]The current Ephesus dates back to 400BC and was the site of the Temple of Artemis one of the seven wonders of the world, the home of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra, Mary Magdalen and where St Paul read his letter to the Ephesians.
In Baghdadthe first pharmacies, or drug stores, were established in 754,[10]under theAbbasid Caliphateduring theIslamic Golden Age. By the 9th century, these pharmacies were state-regulated.[11][unreliable source?]
The advances made in the Middle East in botanyandchemistryledmedicine in medieval Islamsubstantially to developpharmacology.Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi(Rhazes) (865-915), for instance, acted to promote the medical uses of chemical compounds.Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi(Abulcasis) (936-1013) pioneered the preparation of medicines bysublimationanddistillation. HisLiber servitorisis of particular interest, as it provides the reader with recipes and explains how to prepare the `simples’ from which werecompoundedthe complex drugs then generally used. SaburIbn Sahl(d 869), was, however, the first physician to initiate pharmacopoedia, describing a large variety of drugs and remedies for ailments.Al-Biruni(973-1050) wrote one of the most valuable Islamic works on pharmacology entitledKitab al-Saydalah(The Book of Drugs), where he gave detailed knowledge of the properties of drugs and outlined the role of pharmacy and the functions and duties of the pharmacist.Ibn Sina(Avicenna), too, described no less than 700 preparations, their properties, mode of action and their indications. He devoted in fact a whole volume to simple drugs inThe Canon of Medicine. Of great impact were also the works byal-Maridini of BaghdadandCairo, andIbn al-Wafid(1008–1074), both of which were printed inLatinmore than fifty times, appearing asDe Medicinis universalibus et particularibusby `Mesue' the younger, and theMedicamentis simplicibusby `Abenguefit'.Peter of Abano(1250–1316) translated and added a supplement to the work of al-Maridini under the titleDe Veneris. Al-Muwaffaq’s contributions in the field are also pioneering. Living in the 10th century, he wroteThe foundations of the true properties of Remedies, amongst others describingarsenious oxide, and being acquainted withsilicic acid. He made clear distinction betweensodium carbonateandpotassium carbonate, and drew attention to the poisonous nature ofcoppercompounds, especially coppervitriol, and alsoleadcompounds. He also describes thedistillation of sea-waterfor drinking.[12][verification needed]
In Europepharmacy-like shops began to appear during the 12th century. In 1240 emperorFrederic IIissued a decree by which the physician's and the apothecary's professions were separated.[13]The first pharmacy in Europe (still working) was opened in 1241 inTrier,Germany.[citation needed]
In Europe there are old pharmacies still operating in Dubrovnik, Croatia located inside the Franciscan monastery, opened in 1317 ; and one in the Town Hall Square of Tallinn, Estonia dating from at least 1422. The oldest is claimed to be set up in 1221 in the Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, Italy, which now houses a perfume museum. The medieval Esteve Pharmacy, located inLlívia, a Catalan enclave close toPuigcerdà, is also now a museum dating back to the 15th century, keepingalbarellosfrom the 16th and 17th centuries, old prescription books and antique drugs.