Internet structure – Part 2

The Internet ensures the following main functions: E-mail, File-sharing, Instant messaging, Internet fax, Search engine, World Wide Web.

The Internet, as such, has no governing body. The assignment of unique identifiers on the Internet, including domain names, Internet protocol addresses, and parameter numbers is coordinated by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). A globally unified namespace (i.e. a system of names in which there is one and only one holder of each name) is essential for the Internet to function. ICANN operates the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). IANA supervises global Internet protocol address allocation, Domain Name System (DNS) root zone management, and other Internet protocol assignments.

A DNS root zone is the top DNS zone of the Domain Name System hierarchy for a given DNS system. A combination of limits in the DNS and IP protocols resulted in a limited number of root server addresses that can be accommodated in DNS name query responses. This limit has determined the number of name server installation at currently 13 clusters, serving the needs of the entire public Internet worldwide.

The prevalent language for communication on the Internet is English. After English (29.1% of the Internet users) the most-requested languages are Chinese 23.5%, Spanish 8.2%, Japanese 5.9%, French 4.6 %, Portuguese 4.5, German 4.1%, Arabic 2.6, Russian 2.4, Korean 2.3 (from Internet World Stats, updated Q1, 2009).

By continent, 36% of the world’s Internet users are based in Asia, 29% in Europe, and 21% in North America (updated January 11, 2007).

The Internet can now be accessed virtually anywhere by numerous means. Mobile phones, cellular routers and others allow users to connect to the Internet from anywhere.

Vocabulary

English Russian

cellular routers сотовый маршрутизатор

currently 13 clusters нынейших 13 кластеров

DNS (Domain Name System) система имен домена (используется пользователями для доступа к удаленным системам по именам, а не по цифровым IP-адресам) systém jmen domény

DNS root zone DNS корневой зоны

domain name доменное имя

globally unified namespace всемирно унифицированное пространство имен

governing body руководящий орган

prevalent language преобладающий язык

root server сервер (корневой) зоны

Exercise 1: Use the word in capitals given in brackets at the end of each line to form a related word that fits in the space in the same line

Example:

The Internet, as such, has no … … body. [GOVERN]

The Internet, as such, has no governing body.

A globally … … namespace means a system of names in which there is one and only one holder of each name.. [UNIFY]

A globally unified namespace is … … for the Internet to function. [ESSENCE]

A combination of limits in the DNS and IP protocols … … in a limited number of root server addresses. [RESULTING]

Root server addresses can be … … in DNS name query responses. [ACCOMMODATION]

The Internet can now be accessed … … anywhere by numerous means. [VIRTUAL]

Text 6.

Hypertext

Hypertext is a way of organizing material that attempts to overcome the inherent limitations of traditional text in particular its linearity. The point of hypertext is to deal with the problem of information overload. Regarding to the Internet the most frequently hypertext document contains automated cross-references to other documents called hyperlinks. Selecting a hyperlink causes the computer to load and display the linked document. The document can be static (prepared and stored in advance) or dynamically generated interactive applications (in response to user input).

The early 1980s observed a number of experimental hypertext and hypermedia programs. Many features and terminology introduced by these programs were later integrated into the Web. So, in 1980 Tim Berners-Lee originated ENQUIRE, an early hypertext database system. In the late 1980s, he invented the World Wide Web, firstly for automatic information sharing between scientists all over the world. Afterward the Web was admitted for everybody (see also Number 9 – Web Browsers / August 2009, Number 6 – WWW History (Part2) / June 2009 Number 5 – WWW History (Part1) / May 2009). In August 1987 Apple Computer released the HyperCard application for its Macintosh line of computers. The HyperCard was an immediate hit and helped to popularise the concept of hypertext with the general public.

However, all the earlier hypertext systems were overshadowed by the success of the World Wide Web.

HyperText Markup Language (HTML) is the main markup language for the creation of web pages. It provides a means to describe the structure of text-based information in a document by denoting certain text as headings, paragraphs, lists, and so on. Moreover, it supplements that text with interactive forms, embedded images, and other objects. HTML also describes, to some degree, the appearance and semantics of a document. HTML is written in the form of labels (known as tags).

The original HTML together with many associated protocols such as HTTP were developed by Berners-Lee. At the time, HTML was not a specification, but a collection of tools to solve an immediate problem: the communication and dissemination of ongoing research between Berners-Lee and a group of his colleagues. Later his solution, combined with the emerging international and public Internet, attracted worldwide attention. Nowadays Sir Tim Berners-Lee directs World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which develops and maintains standards for the Web effective running.

Vocabulary

appearance and semantics of a document внешний вид и семантика документа

cross-reference перекрёстная ссылка

embedded image вставленное изображение

heading заголовок

HTML (HyperText Markup Language) язык гипертекстовой разметки

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) протокол передачи гипертекстовых файлов

hyperlink гиперссылка (ссылка в гипертекстовой системе)

hyermedia гиперсреда, гипермедиа

hypertext гипертекст hypertext

information overload информационная перегрузка

interactive application интерактивная система, интерактивная прикладная программа

linearity линейность, свойство линейности

list список

paragraph абзац

tag (in HTML) тег (HTML -указатель в теле текста для его обработки)

Exercise 1 Make sentences putting the given words into a correct order using the text above:

HTML – document – a web – readable – a text – is – browser – a form – by – in – .

passage – from – navigate – another – clicking – on – hyperlinks – one – to – The reader – by – may – .

the structure – in – provides – HTML – a means – a document – information – text–based – of – describe – .

hide – the page – images – can – interacts – the user – HTML, – until – you – dynamic – With – in – with – the document – .

in – was – support – this – Work – lack – due to – of – browser – direction – discontinued – .

Exercise 2 Fill in the gaps with proper prepositions:

HTTP is a request/response protocol … clients and servers.

HTML document is a text … a form readable … a web browser.

XML is purposed … sharing data … different information systems, particularly … the Internet.

The reader may navigate … one passage … another … clicking … hyperlinks.

HTTP is a request/response protocol … clients and servers.

HTML provides a means describe the structure … text–based information … a document.

The Consortium is headed … Sir Tim Berners-Lee, the primary author … the original WWW.

… dynamic HTML, you can hide images … the document … the user interacts … the page.

Static web pages consist … files … text stored … the web server file system.

Work … this direction was discontinued … … lack … browser support.

Text 7

World Wide Web Consortium

The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is an international consortium where Member organizations, a full-time staff, and the public work together to develop Web standards. W3C’s mission is:

To lead the World Wide Web to its full potential by developing protocols and guidelines that ensure long-term growth for the Web“ (see www.w3.org). W3C also engages in education and outreach, develops software and serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web.

Nowadays the W3C has more than 400 members.

History

The W3C was founded by Sir Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in October 1994. The W3C was established at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Laboratory for Computer Science (MIT/LCS) with support from the European Commission and the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), which had pioneered the Internet.

The W3C was created to ensure compatibility and agreement among industry members in the adoption of new standards. For reaching its full potential, the most fundamental Web technologies must be compatible with each other and allow any hardware and software used to access the Web to work together. W3C calls it “Web interoperability.” For example, before W3C creation, incompatible versions of HTML were offered by different vendors, which increased in this way inconsistency between web pages.

The W3C gradually established regional offices around the world. As of October 2007 it has sixteen World Offices covering Australia, Europe, Asia, Africa. In Europe the W3C was firstly hosted by INRIA. Later the European host was transferred from the National Research Institute for Infformatics and Authomatics INRIA to the European Research Consortium for Informatics and Mathematics (ERCIM), an organization that represents European national computer science laboratories.

Learn more about the W3C at www.w3.org.

Recommendations and Standards

The W3C primarily discharges its mission creating Web standards and guidelines. Since 1994 W3C has published more than 110 such standards, called W3C Recommendations. By publishing open (non-proprietary) standards for Web languages and protocols, W3C strives to avoid market fragmentation and then Web fragmentation. The W3C also publishes various kinds of informative Notes, which are not considered standards.

The W3C leaves it up to manufacturers to follow the Recommendations. Many of its standards define only levels of conformance, which the developers must follow if they wish to label their product W3C-compliant. The Recommendations are under a royalty-free patent license, allowing anyone to implement them. The W3C/IETF Standards (over Internet Protocol Suite) are listed at www.w3.org – Standards.

The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known as TCP/IP) is the set of communications protocols used for the Internet and other similar networks. It is named from two of the most important protocols in the Suite: the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two networking protocols defined in this Suite. Today’s IP networking sums up a synthesis of several developments that began to progress in the 1960s and 1970s. It refers particularly to the Internet and LANs (Local Area Networks), which emerged in the mid- to late-1980s, together with the arrival of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s.

The W3C has been criticized for being influenced by larger organizations and thus writing standards that answer their interests.

Administration

The Consortium is jointly administered by the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) in the USA, the European Research Consortium for Informatics and Mathematics ERCIM (in Sophia Antipolis, France), and Keio University (in Japan). The W3C also has World Offices in sixteen regions around the world. The W3C Offices work with their regional Web communities to promote W3C technologies in local languages, broaden W3C’s geographical base, and encourage international participation in W3C activities.

Membership

The domain w3.org attracted at least 11 million visitors annually by 2008 according to a Compete.com study „W3C attracts 11m visitors online yearly”.

The Consortium is governed by its membership, which in August 2009 comprised more than 400 organizations. The list of members is available to the public on the Internet. Members include only businesses, nonprofit organizations, universities, and governmental entities. There is no provision for individual membership.

Membership requirements are transparent except for one requirement. An application for membership must be reviewed and approved by W3C. Many guidelines and requirements are stated in detail, Nevertheless, there is no final instructions about the process or standards by which membership might be finally approved or rejected.

Vocabulary

compatibility совместимость

consortium консорциум

discharge выполнять, выпускать

governmental entity правительственная организация

hardware аппаратные средства

inconsistency

несовместимость, противоречивость

Internet Protocol Suite

стек протоколов IP

interoperability

способность к взаимодействию,

совместимость schopnost

nonprofit organization

неприбыльная организация

promote

продвигать

software программное обеспечение

software

pioneer быть первооткрывателем

vendor

поставщик

Exercise 1 Rewrite the text above in your own words (about 100 – 150 words)

Recommendations how to do it:

Reread the text above and make notes to express main ideas of the paragraphs.

Find the key words in each paragraph. They are the words of key importance to the meaning of the paragraph. Use a thesaurus or a dictionary to find synonyms to these words.

Think of alternative phrases for the longer sentences in the paragraphs.

Write your own text using the notes you have made and the vocabulary you have prepared.

Reread again the original text and correct or change anything in the text,which you will write, if necessary.

Text 8

Editorial

SVOMPT stands for S – subject, V – verb, O – object, M – manner, P – place, T – time. It is about word order in English, which is extremely important for this language. Only by the place of a noun in a sentence you can distinguish a subject from an object. Confusing the subject with the object can quite change the meaning of the sentence and hence your thoughts. It could cause a variety of ambiguities and complications when communicating. For this reason non-native speakers should fix the English word order by heart and use it automatically in oral and written communication.

The abbreviation SVOMPT characterises the word order in affirmative (or declarative) sentences. In interrogative (or question) sentences the word order differs from that and is regulated in compliance with proper rules.

The article Basic word order in English clearly explains the rules of English sentences construction and illustrates them with examples.

Vocabulary

advisor советчик

affirmative sentence утвердительное предложение

application прикладная программа

display дисплей

home entertainment hub центр домашних развлечений

interrogative (sentence) вопросительное (предложение)

performance of the operating system производительность операционной системы

”pin” крепить ”шпилькой”

printer принтер, печатающее устройство

scan a computer просматривать, изучать компьютер

slate shaped mobile computer в виде шиферной плиты přenosný počítač ve tvaru břidlicové tabulky

stylus игла звукоснимателя

tablet personal computer лэптоп, небольшой портативный компьютер c сенсорным экраном

touch screen сенсорный экран

upgrade модернизация, апгрейд

Exercise 1 Make sentences putting the given words into a correct order using the text above:

has – Microsoft – system – Windows 7 – specifications – published – just – running – minimum – for a – their –.

recommendations – are – for the – editions – 32-bit – much – the same as – for premium – version – of Vista – Requirements –.

32-bit – versions – the 64-bit – versions – have – than the – However, – requirements – higher –.

has – advisor – upgrade – company – The – released an – recently – Microsoft –.

with – This – advisor – scans a – compatible – see if – it is – Windows 7 – computer to –.

Center – for a – hub – living–room TV – Media – serves – Windows – home-entertainment – as a –.

Exercise 2 Make questions beginning with the words in bold:

Windows 7 can be used on different kinds of personal computers. Where … ?

Windows Vista introduced a large number of new features. What … ? (write two questions)

The company Microsoft was using a variety of new tracing tools for measuring the performance of the operating system. What tools … ?

A tablet personal computer is equipped with a touch screen instead of a keyboard or a mouse. What … with?

A graphic tablet/screen hybrid enables to operate the computer with a stylus or a digital pen, or a fingertip. What … ? (write two questions)

A 10-foot Graphical user interface lets users easily read from a display at a distance of 10 feet (approximately 3 m). What distance … at?

Text 9

The Proliferation of Remote Controls

Remote controls or simply remotes stand for devices used for remote control of different appliances. By the early 2000s, the number of consumer electronic appliances in most homes greatly increased, along with the number of remotes to control those devices. According to the Consumer Electronics Association, an average American home has four remotes. To operate a home theater as many as five or six remotes may be required, including one for a cable or satellite receiver, VCR (videocassette recorder) or DVR (digital video recorder), DVD player, TV and audio amplifier. Several of these remotes may need to be used sequentially. Unfortunately there are no accepted interface guidelines, so the process becomes increasingly awkward. Many specialists note how confusing, unwieldy and frustrating the multiplying remotes have turned out. Because of this proliferation of remote controls, universal remote controls that control multiple devices are becoming more and more popular.

Most control remotes for electronic appliances use the infrared diode to emit a beam of light that reaches the device. This infrared light is invisible to the human eye, but is picked up by sensors on the receiving device. Video cameras see the diode as if it produces visible purple light.

In case of a single channel remote control the presence of a carrier signal can be used to trigger a function. For multi-channel remote controls more sophisticated procedures are necessary, for instance, modulating the carrier with signals of different frequency. After the demodulation of the received signal, the appropriate frequency filters are applied to separate the respective signals. Nowadays digital procedures are more commonly used for these purposes.

Vocabulary

appliance аппарат, прибор

audio amplifier усилитель звуковой частоты

beam of light пучок света; луч света

carrier signal носитель сигнала

control управлять, руководить, командовать

demodulation демодуляция

DVD player DVD-плеер

DVR (digital video recorder) цифровая видеозапись

guidelines нормативы, руководящие принципы

home theater домашний кинотеатр

infrared diode инфракрасный диод

line-up предъявление для опознания

modulating модулирование

multi-channel remote control многоканальное дистанционное управление

remote control дистанционное управление, телеуправление

remote, remote control дистанционное управляющее устройство

sensor датчик, чувствительный или воспринимающий элемент

trigger инициировать

universal remote controls универсальное дистанционное управляющее устройство

VCR videocassette recorder видеомагнитофон

Exercise 1 Make sentences putting the given words into a correct order:

extremely – Lately the – increased – electronic – of– number – control– consumer – devices – remotes to – .

electronic – remotes – control – use the – for – appliances – diode – infrared – Most – .

reaches the – appliance – emits a – electronic – diode – that – The – of light – beam – .

channel – New – APIs – enable – and edit the – each – implement – logos for– line-up – users to – .

an – remote – four – has – home – nowadays – USA – average – In the – American – .

Center – appear to – Media – in the – Windows – The menus – tractable – be also – more – .

Exercise 2 Make questions beginning with the words in bold:

Because of the proliferation of consumer electronic devices universal remote controls are becoming increasingly popular. Why … ?