1. 1.Of notional words only

2. 2.Notional + functional words

3. 3.Functional words only

Notional words (notional phrases) have self-dependent nominative distinction. They denote complex phenomena and their properties in their inter-connections, including dynamic interconnections (semi-predicative combinations): e.g. a sudden trembling; a soul in pain; hurrying along the stream.

Combinations of a notional word with a functional word by their nominative function are equivalent to separate words. Such combinations are non-self-dependent. They are isolated from the context: e.g. in a low voice; with difficulty; but a moment. They are also called formative combinations.

As for syntagmatic groupings of functional words, they used as connectors and specifiers of notional elements of various status: e.g. from out of; up to; so that; such as; must be able; don't let's.

17. The definition of the phrase. The theory of the phrase. Ways of expressing syntactical relations within a phrase.

We term ‘phrase’ every combination of two or more words which is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some word. The constituent elements of a phrase may belong to any part of speech. For instance, they may both be nouns, or one of them may be an adjective and the other a noun, or one of them may be a verb and the other and so on.

The difference between a phrase and a sentence is a fundamental one. A phrase is a means of naming some phenomena or processes, just as a word is. Each component of a phrase can undergo grammatical changes in accordance with grammatical categories represented in it, without destroying the identity of the phrase. For instance, in the phrase write letters the first component can change according to the verbal categories of tense, mood, etc., and the second component according to the category of number. Thus, writes a letter, has written a letter, would have written letters, etc., are grammatical modifications of one phrase.

As for the sentence, it is a unit with every word having its definite form. A change in the form of one or more words would produce a new sentence.

A phrase has no intonation. Intonation is one of the most important features of a sentence, which distinguish it from a phrase.

It is also necessary to dwell on one of the most difficult questions involved in the study of phrases: the grammatical aspect of that study as distinct from the lexicological.

From the grammatical point of view the two phrases read letters and invite friends are identical, since they are built on the same pattern ‘verb + noun’ indicating the object of the action. From the lexicological point of view, they are essentially different, as the verbs belong to totally different semantic spheres; and the nouns too.

Phrases can be studied also in accordance with the syntactical relations between the components of a phrase.

Syntactic relations fall under two main heads:

3. 1.Agreement or concord ['kɒŋkɔ:d] (согласование)

4. 2.Government (управление)

By agreement grammarians mean a method of expressing a syntactical relationship, which consists in making the subordinate word take a form similar to the word to which it is subordinate. It can refer only to the category of number: a subordinate word agrees in number with its head word if it has different number form. This is practically found in two words only, the pronouns this and that, which agree in number with their head word: e.g. this tree, these trees.

As to the problem of agreement of the verb with the noun or pronoun denoting the subject of the action (a child plays, children play), this is a controversial problem. T he fact that sentences like My family is small, and My family are early risers exist side by side proves that the verb can be independent of the noun in this respect: though the noun is in the singular, the verb may be in the plural, if the doer is understood to be plural and vice versa.

By government grammarians understand the use of a certain form of the subordinate word required by the head word, but not coinciding with the form of the head word itself. The only thing that may be termed government in English is the use of the objective case of personal pronouns and of the pronoun who when they are subordinate to a verb or follow a preposition, for instance, the forms me, him, her, us, them, are required if the pronoun follows a verb (e. g. find or invite). The form whom is rather often superseded by the form who in sentences like, Who(m) did you see? Speaking of nouns, the notion of government has become quite uncertain in Modern English. If we look at the forms of the common and the genitive case father and father's we can’t say that a preposition always requires the form of only the common case. For instance, the preposition at can be used with both case forms: e.g. I looked at my father and I spent the summer at my father's.

There is another means of expressing syntactic connection which plays a significant part in modern English. That is enclosure (замыкание). Some element of a phrase is enclosed between two parts of another element. The most widely known case of "enclosure" is the putting of a word between an article and the noun to which the article belongs. Any word or phrase thus enclosed is shown to be an attribute to the noun.