14 Вопрос. Международные операции в системе стратегического маркетинг-менеджмента

Конкурентная стратегия организации зависит от нескольких переменных, которые менеджеры не всегда могут контролировать.

Компания в принципе может следовать нескольким маркетинговым стратегиям. На международных рынках, тем не менее, нужно выбирать из двух: 1) стратегия проникновения на рынок (то есть концентрация на нескольких выбранных рынках, или 2) стратегия снятия сливок (то есть, выход на большое колчисетво рынков).

Countries as markets	Market segments within countries
	Segment penetration	Segment skimming
Market penetration
Market skimming
Fig.1.1. Market expansion strategies: countries and segments

Цель стратегии снятия сливок – получить высокую отдачу, при этом сохраняя на низком уровне вкладываемые ресурсы. При этом компания выбирает наиболее доступные рынки, минимищируя как риски, так и уровень требуемых инвестиций. Этот метод зачастую подразумевает такие формы выхода на зарубежные рынки, как экспорт или лицензирование. Успех этой стратегии зависит от выбора агентов, дистриьцторов, лицензиатов. При таком раскладе, ответственность за маркетинг и дистрибуцию ложится на партнера за границей. Модификации продукции при реализации данной стратегии зачастую незначительны, лишь чтобы отвечать мнимальным трабеованиям потребителей на различных рынках. Компания также будет пытаться назначать высокую цену на свою продукцию, чтобы получать высокую маржу.

Стратегия проникновения на рынок, или стратегия концентрации, описывается как целенаправленный выбор нескольктх рынков для более итенсивного развития на них. Такая стратегия характеризуется медленным постепенным ростом числа обслуживаемых рынков. Преимущества этой стратегии = специализация, экономия на масштабе, рост через проникновение (НЕ универсальна для всех отраслей).

Такая стратегия базируется на долгосрочных возможностях международного рынка. В отличие от первой описанной стратегии, компания в данном случае будет вынуждена вкладывать большее кол-во ресурсов в поиске долгосрочных возможностей. Для некоторых фирм, это прямые инвестиции в местные производственные мощности, или поглощение компании за рубежом. Компания устанавливает более долгосрочные отношения с партнерами, чтобы обеспечить долгосрочную репутацию самой компании и её продукта на зарубежных рынках. Strong contacts with customers, suppliers, distribution outlets and the government are cultivated. Prices are determined with an objective of sales growth. Short-term profits may be sacrificed. The firm adapts its products and services to the precise needs of each international market. A market penetration strategy recognizes that there may be direct competition with local firms and other international firms.

Market skimming or spreading involves the management of the firm's marketing resources in such a way that a relatively equal spread across many markets is achieved. The relative advantages of such an approach include flexibility, a reduced concentration and a way to capitalize rapidly upon some significant competitive advantage. Of course, the firm may pursue a mixed strategy in which it follows neither a pure concentration nor a pure spreading strategy but, instead, sells to a large number of markets while concentrating its resources upon a selection of these. It is easy to see how such a situation could arise as firms often receive what is referred to as opportunistic business, outside the geographic markets in which they are concentrating.

Neither market penetration nor market skimming is a universal remedy to the expansion problems facing the firm. Each strategy has its own strengths and weaknesses which requires the decision maker to find a match between the firm's situation and a possible strategy. Market penetration usually means selling to a small group of markets. Market skimming, on the other hand, involves selling to a large number of markets without concentrating the bulk of efforts on a small number of countries. The optimal number of markets to concentrate upon for a UK firm new to international markets is said to be five to six, while for a developed export international business it is up to twelve countries.

In the longer-term a strategy of diversification will frequently lead to a reduction in the number of markets. This is a result of consolidation and abandonment of less profitable markets. The different patterns of market expansion are likely to cause the development of different competitive candidates in different markets over time. There will also be different levels of marketing effort and different marketing programs in each market. With limited budgets and managerial resources, the level of resources allocated to each market under a strategy of diversification will be lower than with concentration.

But a strategy of market expansion is characterized not only by the date of entry into new national markets but also by market segments within national markets and the allocation of effort to different market segments. The modality used to enter international markets can affect the choice of strategy. A small firm, for example, may skim a number of markets through the use of sales agents.

For small firms, agents are an essential ingredient of market access in attempting to expand rapidly into a number of markets in quick succession or simultaneously. The extensive use of agents involves a strategy of market skimming because less resources are devoted to the venture. On the other hand a sales subsidiary implies a market penetration strategy because more resources are devoted to the project.

Market strategy and competitive strategy

The two strategies of concentration or market spreading should lead to the selection of different levels of marketing effort and different marketing programs in each market. Firms have reasonably fixed financial and managerial resources and thus the level of resources allocated to each market in a strategy of market spreading should be lower than under a strategy of concentrating in fewer markets. Specifically, a lower level of marketing effort implies less promotional expenditures, more dependence on agents and a stronger tendency for a skimming approach to pricing. On the other hand, it is argued, concentration involves substantial investment in market share and heavy penetration pricing.

They state that the competitive strategy should vary according to the situation for each firm, its objectives, its strategic capability and the market characteristics. The strategic choices facing the firm involve different combinations оf country, segment and price decisions. A country and segment penetration strategy means concentrating on specific market segments or niches in a few countries and on a gradual increase in the number of markets served. Competition on the basis of non-price factors tends to be very prevalent due to the need to specialize to serve the needs of the segments.

A country penetration and segment skimming strategy means concentrating on markets but spreading the firm's product appeal across a number of different segments. One would still expect competition on non-price factors but the firm seeks a price advantage by capitalizing upon economies of scale in promotion.

A country skimming and segment penetration strategy means concentrating on segments or niches while spreading across many country markets. Firms following such a strategy would be expected to seek a price or cost advantage by economies in promotion or production. Non-price factors, however, would still play a significant role due to the segment specialization. Finally, a country and segment skimming strategy is based on a dual spreading in both segments and markets. This aggressive strategy is sometimes followed by firms with a product line appealing to many segments. Price factors play an important role in the competitive strategy as the firm seeks a fast entry into the market. This strategy may also be applied by smaller organizations by the engagement of commission agents or by a superficial coverage of the markets.

Linking market strategy, complexity, and entry

One of the hallmarks of successful market entry is the ability to be flexible. Because of the complexity of international markets it may be necessary for the firm to shape its entry strategy to accommodate the specific needs of the marketplace. By complexity is meant the difficulties which arise in dealing with customers, competition, intermediaries and governments. The added dimension of different cultural and competitive situations adds to the difficulty of interpreting signals from such an environment. This issue is known as information complexity.

Processing of market signals from diverse situations can be quite difficult for the firm, especially small firms and those new to international markets. This flexibility is essential in adapting to a rapidly changing environment as found in international markets. The various options along the continuum of commitment from exporting through competitive alliances to foreign direct investment indicates the wide range of choice open to the firm seeking to enter international markets.

Two sets of circumstances may be identified related to this choice. There is the issue of market complexity which is discussed here. It is also necessary to combine the issue of market complexity with market strategy. Three possibilities are identified. In situations where market complexity is low the firm intent on market skimming might choose to export. In situations of high market complexity it may be advisable to acquire a local firm or directly invest in the market in circumstances where a market penetration strategy is being followed The firm may form a competitive alliance such as a joint venture or a marketing cooperation agreement with a partner in circumstances where market skimming is the strategy Similarly, a competitive alliance such as licensing and franchising may be appropriate where market complexity is low and market penetration is the objective (Fig.1.2.)

Market strategy	Market skimming	Export	Competitive alliance
	Market penetration	Competitive Alliance	Acquisition and direct investment
		Low	High
		Market complexity
Fig.1.2. Market strategy, complexity, and entry mode

The degree of complexity existing in the market is likely to affect the choice of entry mode. A highly complex market might favor a direct investment mode whereas a situation of low marketing complexity might favor exporting as a means of entering international markets Competitive alliances will fall somewhere between the two extremes. The firm facing a relatively complex marketing environment may form a joint venture or other alliance with a partner firm abroad to reduce the complexity factor. In this regard many firms considering entry to the Chinese or Japanese markets seek local partners since the local culture is so strange to them that they need somebody with similar interests to mediate between themselves and local customers, employees, and government agencies.

A competitive alliance can, however, increase marketing complexity for the firm in certain circumstances. A major cause of failure in joint ventures is the inability on the part of one of the partners to understand the external environmental factors: cultural differences; government rules and regulations; the market; sources of supply; competition; and currency movements. Complexity may also be increased by a failure to understand the decision-making process. In many oriental countries firms place a heavy emphasis on a consensus decision-making process, whereas in the West the emphasis is on the outcome or decision itself.

One of the difficulties of using a competitive alliance to enter international markets arises when firms fail to agree on objectives regarding market strategy. In forming an alliance both partners should clearly and systematically communicate to each other their respective goals and expectations. Top management of the alliance must in turn communicate these to other members of the joint venture. Disagreements over basic objectives spread into disagreements over other issues, such as differences in opinion about dividend pay out policies, debt—equity ratio, marketing policies and quality control methods.

Выход на зарубежные рынки = выбор формы выхода

Выход на зарубежные рынки представляет диверсифицированную стратегию, которая обеспечила бы компании прибыль и возможности роста. Зачастую, компания выбирает рынки растущие. Такие рынки требуют значительного движения денежных средств, чтобы финансировать развитие. Компания, таким образом, сталкивается с 2 проблемами:

1. на какой рынок выходить

2. каким способом выходить на этот рынок

Среди способов выхода на зарубежный ронок: эспорт и его различные производные, конкурентные альянсы (включающие лицензирование, франчайзинг, СП), а также ПЗИ и Слияния и поглощения.