Lexicalisation

A.I. Smirnitsky speaks about one more way of word formation, which is called lexicalisation of functional affixes. It happens when one of the forms, usually the plural form of the noun gets another meaning and becomes a new word: look – looks, colour – colours etc. The new word is normally characterized by deficiency of paradigm in comparison with the original word. Lexicalisation is typical of abstract nouns. Sometimes adjectives can be also lexicalised low – lower.

Productive and non-productive affixes

Both suffixes and prefixes are classified according to their productivity into productive and non-productive affixes.

Productive affixes are those affixes which are used to form new words in the period in question. The proof of productivity is the existence of new words coined by these means. The productive affixes are: suffixes-noun(er,ing, ness, ism, ist, ance); adjective (y, ish,able, less), adverb (ly), verb (ize, ate; prefixes (un, re, dis). The non-productive: noun- th, hood; adjective (ly, some, en,ous; en).

The productivity should not be confused with frequency, which means the existence in the vocabulary of a great number of words containing a certain morpheme.

An affix may lose its productivity and then be revived for a new spell of active word-formation: the suffix -dom. For a long period of time it was non-productive but then about 200 abstract nouns were coined with its help: bore­dom, serfdom, slavedom. A similar fate befell the suffix -ship.

There are also suffixes on which opinions differ. Some authors, for instance, consider -ment and -ation-tion-sion-ion productive, others class them as non-productive.

The term dead suffixes is used for suffixes disclosed by etymo­logical analysis but having no relevance for the present state of the lan­guage. As a rule they are combined with bound stems. A few examples are: -lock (wedlock), -nd (friend),-red (hatred), etc.

The etymology(origin) of affixes

From the point of view of origin affixes are subdivided into 2 main classes: the native affixes and the borrowed affixes. Native affixes are those that existed in English in the Old English period or were formed from Old English words.

The term borrowed affixes is not very exact as affixes are never borrowed as such, but only as parts of loan words. To enter the morphlogical system of the English language a borrowed affix has to satisfy certain conditions. The borrowing of the affixes is possible only a)if there a great number of words containing this affix b) if its meaning and function are definite, and if its structural pattern corresponds to the structural patterns already exis­ting in the language.

If these conditions are fulfilled the foreign affix may even become productive and combine with native stems or borrowed stems within the system of English vocabulary like –able- Lat “-abilis” in such words as laugh­able or unforgettable.

Native affixes

Part of speech	Affix	Word(example)
Noun-forming	er ness ing dom hood ship	Worker Coldness Feeling Freedom Chidhood friedship
Adjective-forming	Ful Less Y Ish Ly En some	Joyful Careless Cozy Childish Lonely Wooden tiresome
Verb-forming	en	redden
Adverb-forming	ly	carefully

Latin affixes

Part of speech	Affix	Word(example)
Noun-forming	Ion tion	Communion, opinion Relation, temptation
Adjective-forming	Able Ate Ant Ent Or Al ar	Curable, detestable Accurate, desperate Arrogant, important Absent, convenient Minor, senior Final, cordial Familiar, solar
Verb-forming	Ate Ute Ct(rare) D(e) Prefix-dis	Appreciate, congratulate Attribute, contribute Act, connect Divide, include Diable, disagree

French affixes

Part of speech	Affix	Word(example)
Noun-forming	Ance Ence Ment Age ess	Arrogance, hindrance Patience, intelligence Development, appointment Courage, village Actress, lioness
Adjective-forming	ous	Curious, serious
Verb-forming	Prefix-en	Enable, enslave

Hybrids

Words that are made up of elements derived from two or more differ­ent languages are called hybrids. English contains thousands of hybrid words.

There is an established pattern that could be represented as English stem+ -able, e.g. answerable, eatable, likable, usable. The root is English and the suffix is derived from the Latin -abilis and borrowed through French. There is a variant with the native negative prefix un-: un-+ English stem+ -able: unanswerable, unbearable, unforeseeable.

Speaking about word-building we also speak about a special type of word, called splinters(осколочные элементы).They are the result of clipping the end or the beginning of a word and producing other words on the analogy with the previous word: mini from moniature- miniplane, minicar; other splinters are: maxi, bio, agri, mobile, rama(panorama), holic(workaholic), post, pre etc.