29. What does the digestive system consist of? Speak on the functions of the liver, pancreas, stomach duodenum, small and large intestines, rectum.

The glands which pour juices of secretion into the alimen­tary canal are: the salivary glands ,the gastric glands , the liver , the pancreas ,the glands of the small intestines .

In the oral cavity the food by the movements of the tongue and cheeks is turned about and chewed or crushed between the teeth, while at the same time saliva flows into the mouth and is thoroughly mixed with the food to form a bolus which can be swallowed. This is done by the tongue pushing it into the upper part of the throat (pharynx) whose muscles seize it and pass it quickly over the top of the larynx and down through the gullet into the stomach. In the stomach much of the pro­cess of digestion occurs by means of the gastric juices. From the sto­mach the food is passed into the upper end of the small intestine. A short distance down the duodenum, ducts open into it carrying bile produced in the liver and digestive juice secreted by the pancreas. While the food is passing down the small intestines, the dissolved nu­tritious part is absorbed into the blood through the capillaries on the inside of the bowels and passed into the veins, through the liver, into the general circulation for the nourishment of the body. The process of digestion is completed in the large intestine by the absorption of water. The undigested parts of the food mixed with the useless remains of the digesting fluids and some substances excreted from the system are passed out of the body. The whole mass is colored by the bile.

30. What organs does the urinary system consist of?

The urinary system consist of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra.

History of medicine

31. What methods did people use in the past to prevent illnesses?

These methods are prescribed a dirty sock around the neck if you wanted to cure the common cold or a pair of shoes placed upside down under the bed to relieve leg cramps. Tobacco juice was supposed to heal an earache and black pepper to cure asthma. Folklore was also full warnings. Amulets were trusted medical devices.

32. What is acupuncture? Give its definition, how does it differ from other methods of treatment? Why has it become so widely used?

Acupuncture has been a part of Chinese medicine since ancient times. Originally it was used to treat diseases; nowadays acupuncture’s effectiveness in controlling chronic pain has become more widely used. Scientists believe that the needles may stimulate the brain to produce morphine like painkillers called endorphins and encephalins.

33. What was Hippocrates’ contribution into medicine?

He was the head of the most flourishing medical school of his age. Hippocrates freed medicine from superstition. He established the facts that disease was a natural process, that its symptoms were the reactions of the natural forces of the body.

The Hippocratic doctrine regards observation of the patient as the most fundamental obligation of physicians, giving very accurate directions to its followers as to how the examination of the patient should be made:” It is necessary to study all that one can see, feel, and hear, everything that one can recognize and use”.

He employed auscultation. Hippocrates notes the effect of food, of occupation and, especially, of climate in causing disease. One of his most interesting books deals with airs, waters and places.

Great importance in treatment was attributed to diet, gymnastics, exercise, massage, sea bathing.

Blood-letting was rarely prescribed by Hippocrates and his pupils. Cupping was often used, also scarification.