- •Material efficiency in clean energy transitions
- •Abstract
- •Highlights
- •Executive summary
- •Clean energy transitions require decoupling of economic growth from material demand
- •Further ambitions on material efficiency can reduce deployment needs for low-carbon industrial process technologies and achieve emissions reduction throughout value chains
- •Policy and stakeholder efforts are needed to improve material efficiency
- •Findings and recommendations
- •Policy recommendations
- •Historical demand trends for materials
- •Enabling strategies to move towards more sustainable material use
- •Implications of deploying further material efficiency strategies
- •Material demand
- •Steel
- •Cement
- •Aluminium
- •Energy and CO2 emissions
- •Buildings construction value chain
- •Vehicles value chain
- •Enabling policy and stakeholder actions
- •Technical analysis
- •1. Introduction
- •2. Historical demand trends for materials
- •References
- •3. Enabling strategies to move towards more sustainable material use
- •Material efficiency strategies
- •Design stage
- •Fabrication or construction stage
- •Use stage
- •End-of-life stage
- •References
- •4. Implications of deploying further material efficiency strategies
- •Material demand outlook by scenario
- •Steel
- •Cement
- •Aluminium
- •CO2 emissions and energy implications of material efficiency
- •References
- •5. Value chain deep dive #1: Buildings construction
- •Material needs across the buildings and construction value chain
- •Material efficiency strategies for buildings
- •Outlook and implications for steel and cement use in buildings
- •References
- •6. Value chain deep dive #2: Vehicles
- •Material needs of vehicles
- •Material efficiency strategies for vehicles
- •Outlook and implications for vehicle material use and life-cycle emissions
- •EV battery materials
- •Battery materials supply
- •CO2 emissions from battery production
- •Battery recycling
- •References
- •7. Enabling policy and stakeholder actions
- •Challenges and costs of material efficiency
- •Policy and action priorities
- •Increase data collection, life-cycle assessment and benchmarking
- •Improve consideration of the life-cycle impact at the design stage and in CO2 emissions regulations
- •Increase end-of-life repurposing, reuse and recycling
- •Develop regulatory frameworks and incentives to support material efficiency
- •Adopt business models and practices that advance circular economy objectives
- •Train, build capacity and share best practices
- •Shift behaviour towards material efficiency
- •References
- •General annexes
- •Annex I. Reference and Clean Technology Scenarios
- •Annex II. Energy Technology and Policy modelling framework
- •Combining analysis of energy supply and demand
- •ETP–TIMES supply model
- •ETP-TIMES industry model
- •Global buildings sector model
- •Modelling of the transport sector in the MoMo
- •Overview
- •Data sources
- •Calibration of historical data with energy balances
- •Vehicle platform, components and technology costs
- •Infrastructure and fuel costs
- •Elasticities
- •Framework assumptions
- •Technology approach
- •References
- •Annex III. Material demand and efficiency modelling
- •Overview of material demand modelling methodology
- •Buildings value chain assumptions and modelling methodology
- •Vehicles value chain assumptions and modelling methodology
- •Transport infrastructure value chain assumptions, modelling methodology and preliminary findings
- •Material intensity of transport infrastructure
- •Rail
- •Roads
- •Material use in transport infrastructure in the RTS and CTS
- •Material efficiency strategies for transport infrastructure
- •References
- •Annex IV. Transport policies assumptions and impact on activity levels
- •References
- •Abbreviations, acronyms, units of measure and regional definitions
- •Abbreviations and acronyms
- •Units of measure
- •Regional definitions
- •Acknowledgements
- •Table of contents
- •List of figures
- •List of boxes
- •List of tables
Material efficiency in clean energy transitions |
Value chain deep dive #2: Vehicles |
References
Alonso, E. et al. (2012), "Evaluating the potential for secondary mass savings in vehicle lightweighting",
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 46/5, pp. 2893-2901, https://doi.org/10.1021/es202938m.
Argonne National Laboratory (2017), "GREET2 model, 2017 version", UChicago Argonne, LLC, Argonne, https://greet.es.anl.gov/.
Asplan Viak AS (2011), "Life cycle assessment of the Follo Line – Infrastructure", www.banenor.no/globalassets/documents/prosjekter/follobanen/lca---folloline- infrastrukture_en.pdf (accessed January 23, 2019).
Beuving, E. et al. (2004), "Fuel efficiency of road pavements", Proceedings of the 3rd Eurasphalt and Eurobitume Congress (Volume 1), Foundation Eurasphalt, https://trid.trb.org/view/743829.
Chang, B. and A. Kendall (2011), "Life cycle greenhouse gas assessment of infrastructure construction for California’s high-speed rail system", Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Vol. 16/6, pp. 429-434, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2011.04.004.
Chester, M.V. and A. Horvath (2009), "Environmental assessment of passenger transportation should include infrastructure and supply chains", Environmental Research Letters, Vol. 4/2, p. 24008, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/4/2/024008.
China Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (2018), "Notice on printing and distributing the interim measures for the administration of recycling and utilization of power battery for new energy vehicles", In Chinese, www.gov.cn/xinwen/2018-02/26/content_5268875.htm (accessed January 24, 2019).
Cooper, D.R. and J.M. Allwood (2012), "Reusing steel and aluminum components at end of product life",
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 46/18, pp. 10334-10340, https://doi.org/10.1021/es301093a.
Cullen, J., J. Allwood and M. Bambach (2012), "Mapping the global flow of steel: From steelmaking to enduse goods", Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 46/24, pp. 13048-13055, https://doi.org/10.1021/es302433p.
Dunn, J.B. et al. (2015), "The significance of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicle life-cycle energy and emissions and recycling’s role in its reduction", Energy and Environmental Science, Vol. 8/1, pp. 158168, Royal Society of Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ee03029j.
Evans, L.R. et al. (2009), "NHTSA tire fuel efficiency consumer information program development: phase 2—effects of tire rolling resistance levels on traction, treadwear, and vehicle fuel economy", www.nhtsa.gov/DOT/NHTSA/NVS/Vehicle%20Research%20&%20Test%20Center%20%28VRTC% 29/ca/Tires/811154.pdf (accessed January 23, 2019).
Field, K. (2018), "Nissan pushes into energy storage with second-life battery initiative", Clean Technia, https://cleantechnica.com/2018/03/24/nissan-pushes-energy-storage-second-life-battery-initiative/ (accessed January 22, 2019).
Gaines, L. (2018), "Lithium-ion battery recycling processes: Research towards a sustainable course",
Sustainable Materials and Technologies, Vol. 17, p. e00068, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2018.e00068.
Page | 90
Material efficiency in clean energy transitions |
Value chain deep dive #2: Vehicles |
Global Fuel Economy Initiative (n.d.), "Wider, taller, heavier: Evolution of light-duty vehicle size over generations", Global Fuel Economy Initiative Working Paper Series, Vol. 17, www.globalfueleconomy.org/data-and-research/publications/gfei-working-paper-17.
Hall, D. and N. Lutsey (2018), "Effects of battery manufacturing on electric vehicle life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions", ICCT Briefing, The International Council on Clean Transportation, https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/EV-life-cycle-GHG_ICCT- Briefing_09022018_vF.pdf (accessed April 3, 2019).
Hendrickson, T.P. et al. (2015), "Life-cycle implications and supply chain logistics of electric vehicle battery recycling in California", Environmental Research Letters, Vol. 10/1, https://doi.org/10.1088/17489326/10/1/014011.
Hill, N. et al. (2015), "Light weighting as a means of improving Heavy-duty Vehicles’ energy efficiency and overall CO2 emissions", https://ec.europa.eu/clima/sites/clima/files/transport/vehicles/heavy/docs/hdv_lightweighting_en.p df (accessed January 23, 2019).
Huang, B. et al. (2018), "Recycling of lithium-ion batteries: Recent advances and perspectives", Journal of Power Sources, Vol. 399/June, pp. 274-286, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.07.116.
IEA (International Energy Agency) (forthcoming), Global Electric Vehicle Outlook 2019, OECD/IEA, Paris. IEA (2019), The Future of Rail, OECD/IEA, Paris, https://webstore.iea.org/the-future-of-rail.
IEA (2018), Global Electric Vehicle Outlook 2018, OECD/IEA, Paris, https://webstore.iea.org/global-ev- outlook-2018
Isenstadt, A. and J. German (2017), "Lightweighting technology developments", U.S. Passenger Vehicle Technology Trends Technical Brief No. 6, International Council on Clean Transportation, Washington, www.theicct.org/publications/lightweighting-technology-developments (accessed January 23, 2019).
Italferr (n.d.), "Carbon footprint in construction: The experience of Italferr", www.italferr.it/cmsfile/.../italferr.../ArticoloImpontaclimaticarev070414FRAinglese.pdf (accessed January 23, 2019).
Jhaveri, K. et al. (2018), "Life cycle assessment of thin-wall ductile cast iron for automotive lightweighting applications", Sustainable Materials and Technologies, Vol. 15/January, pp. 1-8, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2018.01.002.
Jones, H., F. Moura and T. Domingos (2017), "Life cycle assessment of high-speed rail: a case study in Portugal", The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, Vol. 22/3, pp. 410-422, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1177-7.
Kim, H.-J., G.A. Keoleian and S.J. Skerlos (2011), "Economic assessment of greenhouse gas emissions reduction by vehicle lightweighting using aluminum and high-strength steel", Journal of Industrial Ecology, Vol. 15/1, pp. 64-80, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00288.x.
Kim, H.C. and T.J. Wallington (2013), "Life-cycle energy and greenhouse gas emission benefits of lightweighting in automobiles: Review and harmonization", Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 47/12, pp. 6089-6097, https://doi.org/10.1021/es3042115.
Li, Y. et al. (2018), "Calculation of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of urban rail transit systems: A case study of Shanghai Metro", Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Vol. 128, pp. 451-457, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.03.007.
Liu, G., C. Bangs and D.B. Müller (2013), "Stock dynamics and emission pathways of the global aluminum cycle", Nature Climate Change, Vol. 3, pp. 338-342, https://doi.org/DOI: 10.1038/nclimate1698.
Page | 91
Material efficiency in clean energy transitions |
Value chain deep dive #2: Vehicles |
Luk, J.M. et al. (2018), "Greenhouse gas emission benefits of vehicle lightweighting: Monte Carlo probabilistic analysis of the multi material lightweight vehicle glider", Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Vol. 62/January, pp. 1-10, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2018.02.006.
Luk, J.M. et al. (2017), "Review of the fuel saving, life cycle GHG emission, and ownership cost impacts of lightweighting vehicles with different powertrains", Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 51/15, pp. 8215-8228, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b00909.
Lutsey, N. et al. (2018), "Power play: How governments are spurring the electric vehicle industry", International Council on Clean Transportation, Washington, www.theicct.org/publications/global- electric-vehicle-industry (accessed January 23, 2019).
Milford, R.L. et al. (2013), "The roles of energy and material efficiency in meeting steel industry CO2 targets", Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 47/7, pp. 3455-3462, https://doi.org/10.1021/es3031424.
National Research Council of The National Academies (2006), "Tires and passenger vehicle fuel economy", Transportation Research Board, Washington, http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/sr/sr286.pdf.
Network Rail (2009), "Comparing environmental impact of conventional and high speed rail", www.scribd.com/document/39653457/Comparing-Environmental-Impact-of-Conventional-and- High-Speed-Rail (accessed January 24, 2019).
Peters, J.F. et al. (2017), "The environmental impact of Li-Ion batteries and the role of key parameters – A review", Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 67, pp. 491-506, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.08.039.
Qiao, Q. et al. (2019), "Electric vehicle recycling in China: Economic and environmental benefits",
Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Vol. 140/July 2018, pp. 45-53, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.09.003.
Romare, M. and L. Dahllöf (2017), "The life cycle energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from lithium-ion batteries", IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Stockholm, https://doi.org/978-91-88319-60-9.
Saxe, S., E. Miller and P. Guthrie (2017), "The net greenhouse gas impact of the Sheppard Subway Line",
Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Vol. 51, pp. 261-275, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.01.007.
Stringer, D. and J. Ma (June 2018), "Where 3 million electric vehicle batteries will go when they retire", Bloomberg Businessweek, www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2018-06-27/where-3-million- electric-vehicle-batteries-will-go-when-they-retire (accessed January 24, 2019).
Sullivan, J.L., G.M. Lewis and G.A. Keoleian (2018), "Effect of mass on multimodal fuel consumption in moving people and freight in the U.S.", Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Vol. 63, pp. 786-808, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2018.06.019.
TERI (2012), "Life cycle analysis of transport modes, volume I", The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi, http://planningcommission.gov.in/sectors/NTDPC/Study Reports/TERI/Study_Life Cycle Analysis of Transport Modes_Submitted to the Govt on Jan 4, 2013/LCA_Final Report Vol I.pdf (accessed January 24, 2019).
von Rozycki, C., H. Koeser and H. Schwarz (2003), "Ecology profile of the German high-speed rail passenger transport system, ICE", The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, Vol. 8/2, pp. 83-91, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02978431.
Winter, D. (2014), “Automakers focus on lightweighting to meet CAFE standards”, WardsAuto, https://www.wardsauto.com/technology/automakers-focus-lightweighting-meet-cafe-standards, (accessed March 4, 2019).
Page | 92
Material efficiency in clean energy transitions |
Value chain deep dive #2: Vehicles |
Willuhn, M. (2018), "Wärtsilä, Hyundai ink agreement on second-life EV batteries for grid storage – comment", PV Magazine, www.pv-magazine.com/2018/06/28/wartsila-hyundai-ink-agreement-on- second-life-ev-batteries-for-grid-storage-comment/ (accessed January 24, 2019).
Zheng, X. et al. (2018), "A mini-review on metal recycling from spent lithium ion batteries", Engineering, Vol. 4/3, pp. 361-370, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2018.05.018.
Page | 93