40. Figures of quantity.

Here belong figures based on comparison of two different phenomena or their characteristics with general for them quantitive characteristics. Here the mutual characteristic characterizes one of the compared subjects. If this characteristic is prescribed to the object in a much greater degree appears hyperbole, if in lesser degree then appears meiosis, litotes.

Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of dimensions or other properties of the object, the aim of which is to intensify one of the features of the object: ‘God, I cried buckets. I saw it ten times.’, A 1000 apologies; to wait an eternity; he is stronger than a lion.

Meiosis – a deliberate diminution of features of objects in order to underline the insignificance of the described object. Most often these features are size, volume, distance, time: I was half afraid you had forgotten me.

A humorous effect is observed when meiotic devices (words and phrase called 'downtoners' - maybe, please, would you, mind, etc) co-occur witty rough, offensive words in the same utterance:

It isn't any of your business maybe.

Would you mind getting the hell out of my way?

A special kind of meiosis is litotes - an affirmation is expressed by denying its contrary. It is based on discrepancy between the syntactical form, which is negative, and the meaning, which is positive. Its function is to convey doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristics of the object or a feeling.

e.g. It's not a bad thing - It's a good thing.

e.g. He is no coward. He is a brave man.

The structure of litotes is rather rigid: its first element is always the negative particle ‘not’ (or ‘no’) and its second component is, too, always negative in meaning if not in form: not without doubt; He is no fool.

41. Figures of quality: metonymical group.

Figures of quality give qualitative characteristics of the object of speech. Here belong figures based on comparison of features and characteristic properties of two objects of different kinds with mutual for them qualitative features.

Here belong metonymy, metaphor, irony.

The metonymic group includes such figures of speech in which the transfer of the name from one object to another is based on contiguity of two objects (the object implied and the object named).

Metonymy is most often expressed by nouns. That is why the syntactic functions and positions of metonymic words are those of the subject, object and predicative.

To this group belong metonymy, synecdoche, periphrasis, and to some degree euphemisms.

Metonymy as secondary speech nomination is based on real relations of subject of nominator with that object whose name is transferred to the object of nomination.

Lexical metonymy – when the name of one object, not unfrequently proper name, is transferred to the other object: the press (instead of people writing for newspapers). Such metonymic meanings are registered in dictionaries.

About stylistic metonymy we talk when new, unexpected relations between two objects are realized.

In metonymy relations between the object named and the object implied are various and numerous:

1) Names of tools (or an organ of the body ) instead of names of actions - ‘As the sword is the worst argument that can be used, so should it be the last’.( Byron). ‘Give every man thine ear and a few thy voice’. 2) Consequence instead of cause - … ‘the fish desperately takes the death’ (instead of it snaps at the fish-hook).

3) Relations between a feature of face and face proper - But big nose in the grey suit still stared’. (Priestly)

4) Symbol instead of object symbolized – crown for king or queen.

5) The container instead of the thing contained – The hall applauded.

6) The material instead of the thing it is made of – “The marble spoke’.

7) Relations between clothes or a peace of clothes that a person wears and person proper. - ‘Blue suit greened, might have even winked

Metonymy as a stylistic device (a genuine stylistic device) is used to achieve concreteness of description. By giving a specific detail connected with the phenomenon, the author evokes a concrete and life-like image and reveals certain feelings of his own.

Synecdoche - using the name of a part to denote the whole or vice versa.

A typical example of traditional synecdoche is the word hands used instead of the word worker(s) (Hands wanted). The same in the use of the singular (the so called generic singular) when the plural (the whole class) is meant – A student is expected to know… (or The student…)

Periphrasis – stylistic figure of substitution when the name (meaning) of an object is substituted by description of its important features or denoting their characteristic features. Periphrasis not only intensifies expressiveness of speech because it not only names an object but also describes it.

As some of them are often used, they become synonyms of other words which denote the same denotatum. E.g. my better half (wife)

Periphrasis are divided into:

1. Logical - based on inherent properties of a thing.

e. g. Instrument of destruction, the object of administration.

2. Figurative - based on imagery: sustained metaphor or metonymy

e. g. To tie a knot - to get married; in disgrace of fortune - bad luck. Most often it’s seen in literary prose, also in publicistic style.

Euphemism is a kind of periphrasis based on substitution of rough, impolite expression for more polite; is used to avoid some unpleasant things, or taboo things.

Spheres of application:

1. religious euphemisms: devil – the dickens, old Nick, the deuce

2. moral: to die – to be gone, to go west, to pass away

3. medical: lunatic asylum – mental hospital, madhouse; insane – person of unsound mind

4. political: starvation – undernourishment, revolt – tension.