ACCENTUATION

Within each intonation group (IG), we select one word as particularly important for the meaning. This is where wee place the nucleus, the syllable that bears the nuclear tone (fall, rise, fall rise)

Phonetically, we accent a syllable by giving it a prominent change in pitch, or movement in pitch, or the start of a pitch movement. An accented syllable is also rhythmically stressed, i.e. it has a rhythmic beat.

Pragmatically, we accent a word by accenting its stressed syllable. This indicates the importance of the word for what we are saying.

In an IG there may be other accents in addition to the nuclear accent. If so, the nucleus is the last accent in the IG. How do we decide where the accent in the IG should go? – The nucleus must go on a stressed syllable, by which we mean the syllable that has lexical stress. Provided that the last word in an IG is important for the meaning, it will be accented and thus bear the nucleus. (E.g. I want to buy a lemon.

Could you tell me the time? )

It is only if the words towards the end of the IG are for some reason not accented that the nucleus will go on an earlier word.

Initials, names and numerals are treated like separate words. In a string of several letters or numerals, the nucleus goes on the last one. (E.g. Switch over to IT V)

Content Words and Function Words

Words can be divided into two broad categories, content words (=lexical items= a single word or a compound) and function words.

Content words are nouns, adjectives, most verbs and most adverbs.

Function words are pronouns, prepositions, articles, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs.

Generally speaking, we accent content words but not function words. Hence the nucleus is typically placed on the last content word in the IG. (E.g. I can’t hear you.

Ask her what that noise is.)

If an ig ends with a personal pronoun or a preposition, the nucleus normally goes earlier.

The way to select a suitable place for the nucleus is to start from the end of the IG and work back. (E.g. She’s done it – final pronoun is disregarded

What are you looking at? – preposition is disregarded

Bring it to her. – pronouns and preposition are disregarded

He did better than I thought he would. – pronoun and aux.verb are disregarded

So – to decide where it is appropriate for the nucleus to go, start at the end of the IG and work back ignoring any function word. Unless special circumstances apply, the nucleus should go on the first content word you encounter as you move backwards.(E.g. I think you ought to tell me about it.)

F O C U S

Broad And Narrow Focus

When we utter a stretch of speech (an IG), we can either bring everything into focus (broad focus), or we can selectively focus one part of it (narrow focus). The part of the IG that is placed in focus is called the focus domain. The nucleus marks the end of the focus domain.

Maximally broad focus means that the focus domain is the whole IG. To give a stretch of utterance broad focus we use neutral accentuation. The nucleus goes on the last lexical item.

In narrow focus only part of what we say is brought into focus. For example, if we are asked a question, and in our answer we repeat part of the material from the question, then that old information will not be brought into focus. That is, the lexical items in the old information will not be accented. The nucleus shows where the focus domain ends. [ Ex. E3.9.3 p.118]

Contrastive Focus

A particular kind of narrow focus is contrastive focus. Here the nuclear accent draws attention to a contrast the speaker is making. Any following material within the same IG is unaccented and forms part of the tail of the IG. (E.g. You may have STARted your essay, but have you FINished your essay?)

We sometimes put the nucleus on a given item because we need to place it in contrastive focus.

For example, sometimes the speaker wants to emphasize the polarity of a verb or its tense. In both cases this may cause the nucleus to go on an auxiliary or modal verb (E.g. Sorry, you are busy. – I am NOT busy. You are not involved. – Oh but I AM involved!)

By varying the accentuation (changing the accent pattern, altering the focus, putting the nucleus in different places) we make a particular IG pragmatically appropriate for the particular circumstances in which it is used. The most obvious reason for doing this is to express different kinds of contrastive focus.

The OLD And The NEW

As long as the last lexical item contains new information, that lexical item is accented, and thus bears the nucleus. However, if the last lexical item contains old information, then it is not accented. So the nucleus goes earlier, namely on the last item that contains new information. (E.g. How about a gin and tonic? – Oh, I’d prefer a VODka and tonic)

Thus the place of the nucleus normally signals the end of the new information in an IG. We generally avoid placing a nucleus on an item which repeats something that has been said earlier; we do not accent a repeated item. (E.g. Do you object to DOGS? – No, I aDORE dogs.

TINA Rodman and JANE Rodman.

Synonyms

Old information is not necessarily a matter of repeated words. We can also repeat old information using synonyms, which are usually deaccented. If a word or phrase is a hypernym ( has a broader meaning ) then it counts as given and the accent goes elsewhere.

Then it counts as given and the nucleus goes elsewhere. (E.g. MaLARia and OTHer tropical diseases.)

But if a word or a phrase is a hyponym (has a narrower meaning), then it counts as new and thus it attracts the nucleus. (E.g. How long did the concert LAST? – Three HOURS.

What’s the PRICE? – Fifty DOLlars)

N O U N

Nucleus On The Last Noun

We put the nucleus on a noun where possible, in preference to other word classes. This is seen in various constructions which involve having a verb at the end of a sentence or clause. A final verb is usually deaccented, and the nucleus goes on a preceding noun. ( E.g. How’s HOMEwork going? Look at the TIE he’s wearing. Where’s that SALad I was eating? The PHONE is ringing.)

The same deaccenting applies to the final adjective. ( E.g. We’re going to get the TABLE ready. He ought to keep his MOUTH shut.) [Ex E3.29, 30, p. 172]

Compounds

Most compounds in English are single-stressed, i.e., the main lexical stress goes on the first element (HIGHlight, BEDtime)