39. Discourse analysis in the framework of z. Harris.

In the most basic terms, discourse analysis is a research method that involves studying the use of language. Discourse analysts generally seek to understand discourse’s relations to context, power, and interaction. Zellig Harris began publishing a series of papers in which he coined the term “discourse analysis” (though he did not, at that time, lay out a comprehensive model). Harris aimed to develop a method that moved beyond the boundaries of “descriptive linguistics” (which merely offered an understanding of the role of each linguistic unit within a single sentence). Harris argued for the use of a new method, discourse analysis, as a way of examining meanings within and between entire texts, acknowledging the extensive social and psychological applications such an understanding makes possible.

Harris argued, that semantics is included in grammar, not separate from it, form and information being two faces of the same coin. A particular application of the concern about presuppositions and metalanguage, is that any specification of semantics other than that which is immanent in language can only be stated in a metalanguage external to language.

40. Transformational grammatics. Transformation analysis.

In linguistics, a transformational grammar  is a generative grammar, especially of a natural language, that has been developed in the Chomskyan tradition of phrase structure grammars (dependency grammars).

Deep structure and surface structure

 Noam Chomsky  developed the idea that each sentence in a language has two levels of representation — a deep structure and a surface structure. The deep structure represented the core semantic relations of a sentence, and was mapped on to the surface structure via transformations.

Though transformations continue to be important in Chomsky's current theories, in the 1990s Chomsky sketched out a new program of research known as Minimalism, in which Deep Structure and Surface Structure no longer featured and LF — Logical Form, and PF — Phonetic Form remained as the only levels of representation.

The usual usage of the term 'transformation' in linguistics refers to a rule that takes an input typically called the Deep Structure and changes it in some restricted way to result in a Surface Structure. In TG, Deep structures were generated by a set of phrase structure rules.

For example, a typical transformation in TG is the operation of subject-auxiliary inversion (SAI). This rule takes as its input a declarative sentence with an auxiliary: "John has eaten all the heirloom tomatoes." and transforms it into "Has John eaten all the heirloom tomatoes?"

X NP AUX Y  X AUX NP Y

(where NP = Noun Phrase and AUX = Auxiliary)

Transformations actually come of two types: (i) the post-Deep structure kind mentioned above, which are string or structure changing, and (ii) Generalized Transformations (GTs). Generalized transformations were originally proposed in the earliest forms of generative grammar. They take small structures, either atomic or generated by other rules, and combine them. For example, the generalized transformation of embedding would take the kernel "Dave said X" and the kernel "Dan likes smoking" and combine them into "Dave said Dan likes smoking." GTs are thus structure building rather than structure changing.

An immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.

Examples In the complex noun phrase the dog that killed the cat, each of the following items are immediate constituents: the, dog, that killed the cat

41.TEXT CoMprESSioN

• A process of info contraction by different means (in my own words, you can say better!)

In technology:

• Archives *RAR, *ZIP…

• Redundancy : Y cn undrstnd ths evn mnu ltrs misng( chats, internt – how r u? etc)

Translation: depends on our initial goal, transform original text into abstracts, reviews, papers, headnotes, recapitulation( during lectures)

Linguistic methods of text compression: divide info into 2 types: main & secondary , than exclude the second one.

-Replacements:

• Homogeneous terms into generalized names

• Fragment of the sentence or its part by synonyms expressions

• Fragment of the sentence or its part by demonstrative pronoun

• A complex sentence by simple one

• Direct speech into indirect

-Excludings: repetitions, 1 or more synonyms( or frases: ‘ cos instead of due to the fact that)), descriptive sentences

-Unification of a few sentences into one, if they telling about one subject

Also as SHE said:

LEXICAL COMPRESSION ( ex. Noun into pronoun)

SYNTACTICAL COMPRESSION( semiotic way)

Commynicative type: NOT DISCRIptiVE sentences etc.

Secondary nomination- replace a big peace of the sentence into 1 word: … - is a moon

P.S. может кто лучше написал то что она говорила про лексикал и синтектика компрешн? – я была у доски и точно не записала. Т.к. что если кто лучше записал, исправьте ошибки и перешлите ! Спасибо ! Уля)