- •1.1. Definition
- •1.2. Morphological structure of nouns
- •1.3. Classes of nouns
- •1.3.1. Proper vs common nouns
- •1.3.2. Concrete vs abstract nouns
- •1.3.3. Countable vs uncountable nouns
- •1.3.4. Animate vs inanimate
- •1.3.5. Human (person) vs non-human (non-person)
- •1.3.6. Gender
- •1.3.7. Classes of nouns and grammatical categories of nouns
- •1.4. The category of Number
- •1.4.1. The productive way of the number formation
- •1.4.2. The non-productive ways of the number formation
- •1.5. The category of Case
- •1.5.1. Common Case: the syntactic functions of nouns
- •1.5.2. Possessive case
- •1. Write down the plurals of the following nouns and check their pronunciation in a dictionary where necessary:
- •2. Define the morphological structure of the italicized nouns in the texts given below:
- •3. Make up unstable compounds out of the following word-combinations:
- •4. Use the possessive case of the noun instead of the following word-combinations:
- •5. Analyse the italicized nouns in terms of classes and categories in the following extracts:
- •6. Translate the following sentences into English:
- •2.1. Definition
- •2.2. Functions of article
- •2.3. Article and pronoun
- •2.4. Indefinite article: usage
- •2.4.1. Indefinite article before common concrete nouns
- •2.5. Definite article: usage
- •2.5.7. Definite article before common nouns
- •2.5.2. Definite article before proper nouns
- •2.5.3. Definite article in collocations and set expressions
- •2.6. Zero article: usage
- •2.6.1. Zero article before common nouns
- •2.6.2. Zero article before proper nouns
- •2.6.3. Zero article in collocations and set expressions
- •2.7. Article determination of certain noun groups
- •1. Comment on the use of the italicized articles and nouns they determine in the extracts below:
- •2. Compare and explain the use of the italicized articles and nouns they specify in the following groups of sentences:
- •3. Insert proper articles where necessary into the texts below:
- •4. Translate the following texts into English using proper articles:
- •3.1. Definition
- •3.2. Morphological structure of adjectives
- •3.3. Classes of adjectives
- •3.3.1. Qualitative adjectives: the category of comparison
- •Inner — — innermost
- •3.4. Syntactic functions of adjectives
- •2. Give the opposites of the following adjectives by using the correct negative prefix:
- •3. Write down the comparative and superlative degrees of the following adjectives:
- •4. Define the class of the italicized adjectives and their syntactic function in the text given below:
- •5. Insert little or a little and define which part speech they belong to:
- •10. Complete the following with far/farther/farthest, further/furthest:
- •11. Put the words in brackets into the comparative forms:
- •4.1. Definition
- •4.2. Classes of pronouns
- •4.4. Possessive pronouns
- •4.5. Reflexive pronouns
- •4.6. Reciprocal pronouns
- •4.7. Demonstrative pronouns
- •4.8. Interrogative pronouns
- •4.9. Connective pronouns
- •4.9.1. Relative pronouns
- •4.9.2. Conjunctive pronouns
- •4.10. Indefinite pronouns
- •4.11. Defining pronouns
- •4.12. Negative pronouns
- •2. In these sentences change the definite article to the pronoun some and observe the difference in meaning:
- •3. Translate into English using some, any, someone, anyone, somebody, anybody, something, anything:
- •4. Give two English variants of each of the following sentences using the pronouns either and both:
- •11. Translate into English using where necessary that, who or what:
- •12. Translate into English using reflexive pronouns:
- •13. Translate into English using one, oneself, one's:
- •5.1. Definition
- •5.2. Classes of numerals
- •5.3. Morphological structure of numbers
- •5.4. Usage
- •5.4.1. Numerals proper
- •5.4.2. Noun-substitutes
- •5.4.3. Substantivized numerals
- •1. Answer the following questions using cardinals:
- •2. Translate into English using cardinals:
- •3. Translate into English using the words dozen, hundred, thousand, million in the proper form:
- •4. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •5. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •6. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •7. Translate into English using fractional numerals:
- •8. Read out the following extracts paying special attention to the italicised numerals:
- •6.1. Definition
- •6.2. Morphological structure of verbs
- •6.3. Finite vs non-finite forms
- •6.4. Syntagmatic functioning of verbs
- •6.5. Conjugation of verbs
- •6.6. Regular vs irregular verbs
- •6.7. Classes of verbs: functions
- •6.8. Be: functions
- •6.9. Have: functions
- •6.10. Do: functions
- •6.11. Shall: Junctions
- •6.12. Will: functions
- •6.13. Should: functions
- •6.14. Would: functions
- •6.15. Modals
- •6.15.1. Modals expressing obligation
- •6.15.2. Modals expressing supposition
- •6.15.3, Modals expressing ability
- •6.75.4. Modals expressine permission.__requests,
- •6.15.5. Modals expressing willingness
- •6.15.6. Semi-defective verbs: need and dare
- •I 6.16. Meaningful verbs: grammatical categories
- •6.16.2. Category of Tense
- •6.16.3. Category of Taxis
- •6.16.4. Category of Aspect
- •6.16.5. Category of Voice
- •6.16.6. Category of Person
- •6.16.7. Category of Number
- •6.16.8. Category of Negation
- •6.16.9. Category of Interrogation
- •Is often a fine month, isn't it? — It isn't cold in October,
- •Is it? Leaves turn red and gold then, don't they? — The
- •I? You will be quick, won't you?
- •6.16.10. The Category of Expressivity
- •6.16.11. The category of Representation
- •6.17.1. Participle
- •6.17.2. Gerund
- •6.17.3. Infinitive
- •2. Define the syntagmatic characteristics of the italicized verbs in the following extracts:
- •3. Define the forms of conjugation of the italicized verbs below:
- •4. Comment upon the functions of be:
- •5. Comment upon the functions of have in the following extracts:
- •6. Comment upon the functions of do in the following extracts:
- •7. Define the meaning of the italicized modals in the extracts below:
- •8. Translate into English using modals of obligation:
- •9. Translate into English using modals of supposition:
- •10. Define the function of shall, will, should, would and the grammatical pattern in the following sentences:
- •11. Analyse the italicised verbal forms in terms of the grammatical categories:
- •12. Comment upon the forms of the participle and its syntactic functions:
- •13. Comment upon the forms of the gerund and its syntactic functions:
- •14. Comment upon the forms of the infinitive and its syntactic functions:
- •75. Define the grammatical status and the syntactic function of the italicised -ing forms in the following extracts:
- •16. State the grammatical status of verbals and their syntactic function in the following extracts:
- •17. Translate into English using the Complex Subject:
- •18. Translate into English using the Complex Object:
- •7.1. Definition
- •7.2. Morphological structure of adverbs
- •7.5.7. Adverbs denoting the quality of an action
- •7.5.2. Adverbs denoting circumstances
- •7.6. Syntactic functions of adverbs
- •1. Comment on the morphological status, lexical class and syntactic function of the italicized adverbs in the sentences below:
- •2. Choose the right word and define the part of speech it belongs to:
- •3. State whether the italicized words in the sentences below are adverbs or prepositions:
- •4. State whether the italicized forms below are prepositional or phrasal verbs:
Краткая грамматика английского языка
Е. А. Долгина
CHAPTER I Noon
1.1. Definition
The noun as a part of speech has the general meaning of substance in the widest sense of the term. This is the main nominative class of words for they are used to name living beings (a man, a woman, a girl-friend, a bird, a dog), objects (a pen, a flower) and abstract notions, such as qualities (kindness, strength), states (fear, fight, sleep), processes (discussion, reading) viewed as substances.
The most characteristic formal feature of this class of words is the use of the article — a specific word of 3 types — definite (the), indefinite (a(n)) and zero or the meaningful absence of the article, which determines or specifies nouns in the most general way: Anyone who knows a language knows what sounds are in the language. Experts disagree about the origins of language. (For details see Chapter II)
1.2. Morphological structure of nouns
According to their morphological structure nouns may be classified as 1) simple, 2) derivative, 3) compound.
Simple nouns are structurally simple in the sense that they are devoid of affixes — prefixes and suffixes and have only a root-stem. In other words they cannot be further
segmented: book, pen, bird, shirt, 'lamp, house, system, work, etc.
Derivative nouns derive from the root-stem of words which may belong to various parts of speech — nouns, adjectives, verbs. They are formed mainly with the help of numerous suffixes: writer, warmth, linguist, systematization. kingdom, childhood and so on. A great number of derivative nouns may contain prefixes which are traceable to verbs or adjectives and thus are typically verbal or adjectival prefixes, disagreement < disagree < agree, misunderstanding < misunderstand < understand, irresponsibility < irresponsible < responsible, impatience < impatient < patient.
The suffixes used in the noun-formation may be productive, i.e. most widely and regularly recurrent, and non-productive one that are characteristic of a limited number of words.
The most productive nounal suffix is -er (with its -or variant) which may theoretically be added to any verbal stem: doer, cleaner, gardener, singer, worker, conductor, inventor, distributor, etc.
Other productive suffixes of nouns are:
-ness: blackness, dullness, uselessness;
-ist: linguist, economist, typist;
-ism: nationalism, capitalism, dualism;
-ion/-ation/-ition: collection, creation, dictation, persuasion, division/aspiration, consideration, recommenda-tion/acqisition. repetition, disposition.
The non-productive noun-forming suffixes are:
-ess: actress, heiress, waitress, lioness, tigress: -ian: mathematician, historian, librarian; -ure: picture, literature, nature, temperature;
-ant: assistant, attendant;
-ful: handful, spoonful;
-ie/-y: birdie, daddy, Jimmy;
-dom: boredom, freedom, kingdom:
-hood: childhood, brotherhood, motherhood:
-ship: friendship, relationship;
-ance/-ence: resistance, importance/decadence, dependence, difference;
-ment: agreement, announcement, statement;
-y/-ry: biology, geography, anatomy/chemistry, psychiatry;
-s: economics, linguistics, physics;
-ty/-ity: cruelty, difficulty/generosity, majority, visibility;
-th: length, strength, warmth.
Some prefixes rather typical of verbs or, more frequently of adjectives, especially negative ones, can still be found in nouns. They are as follows:
anti-: anticlimax, antimatter:
со-: coauthor; copilot, coeducation;
dis-: disagreement, disjuncture, disarmament:
ex-: ex-wife, ex-minister, ex-president;
il-: illegality, illiberality, illiteracy;
in-: indecency, incompatibility, indecorousness;
im-: impracticality, impregnability, impropriety;
ir-: irresponsibility, irresolution, irritability;
mis-: misunderstanding, misfortune, miscalculation, misuse;
поп-: non-smoker, non-event, non-story, non-character;
un-: unpleasantness, unreality, unruliness.
Compound nouns may be of 2 types. Nouns of the first type are made up of two or more stems — nounal, adjectival, verbal, adverbial, prepositional — which are brought together in an arbitrary way and spelt either as one word or with a hyphen. Here are the subtypes of them:
a) nounal stem + nounal stem: manservant, bathroom, roommate;
b) nounal stem + prepositional stem + nounal stem: brother-in-law, grant-in-aid, man-of-war, commander-in-chief;
c) nounal stem + adverbial stem: looker-on, passerby, hanger-on;
d) pronounal stem + nounal stem: he-goat, she-goat, he-bear, she-bear;
e) adjectival stem + nounal stem: blackbird, smallpox, tenderloin;
f) adjectival stem + adverbial stem: close-up, grownup, low-down;
g) adjectival stem + verbal stem + adverbial stem: merry-go -round;
h) adverbial stem + nounal stem: by-stander, byproduct, overcoat, overspill;
i) adverbial stem + adjectival stem: bygone, overall, overpowering;
j) adverbial stem + verbal stem: outlook, offshoot, overlap;
k) verbal stem + pronounal stem + adverbial stem: forget-me-not,
I) verbal stem + adverbial stem: sit-in, take-off, feedback, look-out;
m) participial stem + nounal stem: swimming-pool, dining-room, reading-hall.
Nouns of the second type called unstable compound (нестойкое сложное слово) consist of the two separate nouns and function in speech as a complex equivalent of one word: stone wall, life span, college courses, surface differences, etc. The first element of the unstable compound describes the second one and therefore is pro-sodically brought out by stress. Not infrequently unstable compounds are equivalent to and used on a par with the corresponding attributive word-combinations: language change — linguistic change, grammar rules — rules of grammar, grammatical rules, speech sounds — sounds of speech, language origin — origin of language.
Sometimes the first element of unstable compounds may be complex itself: phrase-structure rules, second-language learning and so on.